Mughal Tomb Construction Techniques

The construction of the major imperial Mughal tombs of the seventeenth century, including Humayun’s Tomb in Delhi, the tomb of Akbar at Sikandra, the Tomb of Jahangir at Lahore, the Taj Mahal at Agra, the tomb of Itimad-ud-Daulah at Agra, the Bibi Ka Maqbara at Aurangabad, and the tomb of Safdarjung at Delhi, involved a sophisticated combination of Persian, Central Asian, and Indian techniques that was among the most technically accomplished of any building tradition in the world. The techniques were developed over more than two centuries and represent a substantial body of practical and theoretical knowledge that has been the subject of considerable scholarly attention and is now the focus of extensive conservation work in the post-Independence period.

The Structural System

The structural system of the major imperial Mughal tombs combines load-bearing walls and true domes drawing on both the Persian and the Indian building traditions. Vertical loads are carried by thick masonry walls of red sandstone, white marble, or rubble core faced with stone, and horizontal spans are achieved through pointed arches, trabeate construction with carved stone beams, and ingenious structural devices including squinches, timber tie-beams, and double-shell domes.

The true dome, built of cut stone or brick and supported on squinches or a drum, is a defining feature of the tradition, and the major imperial mausoleums all employ the technique. The double-shell dome, in which an outer shell of stone or marble is supported on a framework that transfers the loads to an inner shell of brick and lime plaster, is a particularly sophisticated development, and it was used in Humayun’s Tomb, the Taj Mahal, the Bibi Ka Maqbara, and other imperial mausoleums.

The timber tie-beam, in which a horizontal beam of timber is inserted into the structure to address the lateral thrust of the central dome, is another distinctive feature. The tie-beams were generally concealed within the masonry of the walls, and they were a key element in the structural system of the major imperial mausoleums. The use of the tie-beam in the Mughal tradition has been the subject of considerable scholarly attention, and the surviving examples of the technique provide a useful indication of the technical sophistication of the imperial workshop.

The Materials

The principal materials were red sandstone, white marble, lime mortar, and rubble core, supplemented by polychrome inlay stones and the iron clamps and tie-bars used in the structural system. The red sandstone was generally quarried at the site of the building or in the surrounding region, and the white marble was generally quarried at Makrana in Rajasthan, transported to the building site over a distance of several hundred kilometres, and finished on site.

The lime mortar was a sophisticated material that combined slaked lime with additives including brick dust, jaggery, and other organic materials to produce a mortar of considerable strength and durability. The rubble core of the walls, faced with red sandstone or white marble, was a feature of the larger imperial mausoleums: the core was constructed of undressed stone set in lime mortar, and the facing was constructed of dressed stone laid in courses. The combination produced a wall of considerable strength and durability.

The Site Selection

The site selection for the major imperial Mughal tombs was a matter of considerable importance, and the choice of the site was generally made by the emperor or by the senior members of the imperial household in consultation with the architects and engineers of the imperial workshop. The principal considerations included proximity to the capital, access to the principal routes of communication, the availability of water, the suitability of the ground for the foundations, the symbolic significance of the site, and the relationship to the existing imperial buildings.

The site of the Taj Mahal, on the southern bank of the river Yamuna at Agra, was chosen for its proximity to the imperial capital, its access to the river, its suitability for the foundations, and its symbolic significance as the site of the imperial residence. The site of Humayun’s Tomb, in the Nizamuddin area of Delhi, was chosen for its proximity to the existing Sufi shrine, its access to the river, and its symbolic significance in the vicinity of the principal Sufi saints of Delhi.

The Foundations

The foundations of the major imperial Mughal tombs were a critical element of the construction, and the design was a key factor in the long-term stability of the buildings. The foundations of the Taj Mahal, for example, were constructed of a series of brick-lined wells sunk into the alluvial bank of the Yamuna, a technique that has given the structure considerable stability despite its location on a riverbank. The foundations of the other major imperial mausoleums were generally constructed of stone or brick set in lime mortar, with the depth determined by the conditions of the ground and the requirements of the building. The design of the foundations was the responsibility of the senior engineers of the imperial workshop, and the work was generally the first stage in the construction of the building.

The Construction Process

The construction process for the major imperial Mughal tombs was a substantial undertaking that involved the coordination of a large workforce and a substantial investment of imperial resources. The process generally began with the design of the building, the preparation of the site, the construction of the foundations, the construction of the walls, the construction of the domes, the construction of the interior finishes, and the construction of the surrounding complex.

The walls were generally built by a team of stone masons, with the dressed stone laid in courses and the rubble core set in lime mortar. The domes were generally constructed by master masons with specialised skills, and the work was carried out on a centring of timber or stone that was removed once the dome was complete. The interior finishes, including the carving, inlay, and painting of the interior surfaces, were the responsibility of a team of craftsmen with specialised skills, and the work was generally carried out after the principal structural work was complete.

The Time Required

The time required for the construction of the major imperial Mughal tombs was substantial, and the work was generally carried out over a period of several years. The Taj Mahal was constructed over a period of about twenty years, with the principal work on the mausoleum complete by about 1643 and the work on the outer complex continuing until about 1653. The time required was a function of the scale of the building, the complexity of the design, the availability of the materials, the availability of the workforce, and the resources of the imperial workshop.

The Craftsmen Involved

The craftsmen involved in the construction were drawn from across the empire and beyond, and the imperial workshop was a substantial establishment employing thousands of craftsmen organised into a number of specialised divisions. The principal divisions of the workshop included the architects, the engineers, the stone masons, the stone carvers, the inlayers, the calligraphers, the painters, the gilders, and the supervisors, and the work was coordinated through a hierarchy of master craftsmen and administrators.

The craftsmen were generally recruited from the principal centres of the building trades in the empire, including the Punjab, Rajasthan, Gujarat, the Deccan, and the regions of the Persian and Central Asian world, and the recruitment was a key element of the imperial patronage. The master craftsmen who emerged from the imperial workshop were among the most highly trained artisans in the world, and the training was a long and demanding process carried out over a period of several years.

The Symbolic and Religious Dimensions

The construction of the major imperial Mughal tombs was a matter of considerable symbolic and religious significance, and the work was generally accompanied by religious ceremonies and ritual observances. The laying of the foundations, the construction of the principal elements of the building, and the completion of the work were all marked by religious ceremonies. The integration of the religious and architectural elements has been the subject of considerable scholarly attention, and the use of the charbagh garden, the calligraphic programme, the integration of the building with the surrounding landscape, and the use of the building as a venue for the religious observances of the imperial household are all elements of the symbolic and religious programme.

For the broader context of the imperial building tradition, the Mughal architecture overview pillar offers a synthetic account, while the cluster page on Mughal tombs treats the related building types in greater depth. The Taj Mahal and Humayun’s Tomb long-tail pages treat the major surviving examples of the tradition in greater detail.