Mughal Palaces

Mughal palace architecture represents and influential building traditions in the history of South Asian architecture. The imperial palace was simultaneously a residence, an administrative centre, a ceremonial stage, and a symbolic representation of imperial authority, and the surviving complexes at Agra Fort, the Red Fort in Delhi, the Lahore Fort, the Fatehpur Sikri palace complex, and the Allahabad Fort constitute some of the most important architectural monuments of the subcontinent. The formal vocabulary of the Mughal palace, including the Diwan-i-Aam (public audience hall), the Diwan-i-Khas (private audience hall), the khwabgah (sleeping chamber), the shish mahal (palace of mirrors), the naqqar khana (drum house), and the zenana (women’s quarters), was widely imitated in the provincial courts and the successor states, and the tradition continued to influence palace architecture in South Asia well into the colonial period.

Functions of the Imperial Palace

The Mughal imperial palace was not a single building but a complex of buildings, gardens, courtyards, and services, all enclosed within a fortified precinct. The complex served a wide range of functions, including the residence of the emperor and the imperial household, the administration of the empire, the reception of foreign envoys and provincial governors, the conduct of the daily public audience, the celebration of imperial festivals and ceremonies, and the maintenance of the imperial cult. The layout of the complex, the sequence of spaces, the integration of the buildings with the surrounding gardens and water features, and the use of axial planning, controlled access, and graduated decoration were all elements of a carefully designed programme that linked the practical functions of the complex to the symbolic representation of imperial authority.

The most important functional spaces within the Mughal palace complex can be classified into a number of standard categories. The Diwan-i-Aam was the venue for the daily public audience, when the emperor received petitions, heard complaints, and transacted the routine business of the empire. The Diwan-i-Khas was the venue for the private audience, when the emperor received the principal officers of the state, the provincial governors, and the foreign envoys. The khwabgah was the principal sleeping chamber of the emperor, and the shish mahal was a more intimate residence decorated with mirror-work and stucco ornament. The naqqar khana was the drum house, located at the entrance to the complex, where musicians announced the arrival of the emperor and the principal occasions of the day. The zenana was the women’s quarters, the residence of the principal ladies of the imperial household, the empress, the princesses, and the female attendants.

In addition to these standard elements, the Mughal palace complex also included a wide range of service and administrative buildings, including the kitchens, the stables, the elephant houses, the mint, the workshops, the mosques, the baths, the hospitals, and the residential quarters for the staff of the establishment. The major complexes also included gardens, often organised on the charbagh plan, which provided both a setting for the palaces and a venue for the imperial leisure. The integration of the palace with the fort, the city, and the surrounding landscape was a major element of the design, and the major palace complexes are now understood as elements of a larger urban and territorial programme.

The Diwan-i-Aam

The Diwan-i-Aam, or public audience hall, is and consistent elements of the Mughal palace complex. The building is typically a large open hall, with a flat roof supported on rows of columns, and the throne of the emperor is placed at the centre of the rear wall. The Diwan-i-Aam is the venue for the daily public audience, when the emperor, seated on the throne, received petitions, heard complaints, and transacted the business of the empire. The building is typically located close to the main entrance of the palace complex, in a position that allows easy access for the public.

The most famous examples of the Diwan-i-Aam in the Mughal tradition are located in the Red Fort in Delhi, the Agra Fort, and the Lahore Fort. The Red Fort example, a sandstone structure with a flat roof and a central throne platform, is the most elaborate of the surviving examples, and it was the venue for the daily audience during the seventeenth century. The Agra Fort example, located within the larger complex, has been considerably modified, and the Lahore Fort example, located within the larger complex, was extensively remodelled during the reign of the emperor Shah Jahan.

The Diwan-i-Aam was often associated with the jharokha-i-darshan, the balcony of appearance, from which the emperor appeared to the public on ceremonial occasions. The balcony, a feature of considerable symbolic importance, was the visual focus of the imperial presence for the ordinary subjects of the empire, and the tradition of the jharokha-i-darshan was a particular feature of the early Mughal period, particularly under Akbar. The tradition was eventually discontinued in the later period, and the surviving examples of the jharokha-i-darshan are limited.

The Diwan-i-Khas

The Diwan-i-Khas, or private audience hall, is the venue for the more intimate business of the empire. The building is typically smaller and more refined than the Diwan-i-Aam, and it was used for the reception of the principal officers of the state, the provincial governors, and the foreign envoys. The Diwan-i-Khas of the Red Fort in Delhi, with its white marble construction, its central throne, and the celebrated inscription of the poet Amir Khusrau, is the most famous surviving example, and the Diwan-i-Khas of the Agra Fort, the Lahore Fort, and the Fatehpur Sikri palace complex are also important examples of the type.

The Diwan-i-Khas of Fatehpur Sikri, with its unusual central pillar and the four walkways connecting the pillar to the corners of the chamber, is buildings of the Mughal tradition. The structure is debated, and the central pillar has been associated with a number of symbolic and practical interpretations, including the representation of the cosmic axis, the support of the imperial throne, and the practical function of allowing the emperor to consult with the four principal ministers of the realm.

The Zenana and the Harem

The zenana, or women’s quarters, was an important element of the Mughal palace complex. The zenana was the residence of the principal ladies of the imperial household, the empress, the princesses, the concubines, and the female attendants, and the buildings associated with the zenana typically include a range of residential and ceremonial spaces, including audience halls, sleeping chambers, bath complexes, gardens, and pavilions.

The zenana of the Red Fort in Delhi, located in the northern portion of the complex, includes a number of refined structures, including the Rang Mahal (palace of colour), the Khas Mahal (principal palace), the Mumtaz Mahal (named for the emperor’s wife), and the Shah Burj (imperial tower). The buildings are constructed of white marble and decorated with painted and gilded ornament, mirror-work, and pietra dura inlay, and they provide some of the most refined surviving examples of the residential vocabulary of the tradition.

The harem was not merely a residential space; it was also an important political space. The principal ladies of the imperial household, particularly the padshah begum or principal empress, played important roles in the political life of the empire, and the women of the harem were often involved in diplomacy, in the management of imperial estates, in the patronage of architecture and the arts, and in the politics of succession. The most famous example is the empress Nur Jahan, the wife of the emperor Jahangir, who exercised considerable political authority and was an important patron of architecture and the arts.

The Major Palace Complexes

The Agra Fort

The Agra Fort, located on the banks of the river Yamuna in Agra, was the principal residence of the Mughal emperors from Akbar to Shah Jahan, and it is surviving palace complexes of the tradition. The fort, which was substantially rebuilt by Akbar in red sandstone in the 1560s and 1570s, contains a number of important buildings, including the Diwan-i-Aam, the Diwan-i-Khas, the Khas Mahal, the Shah Jahani Mahal, the Musalman Burj, the Moti Masjid (Pearl Mosque), the Nagina Masjid (Gem Mosque), the Jahangiri Mahal, and the gardens and pavilions of the imperial residence. The complex is now inscribed on the UNESCO World Heritage List as part of the “Agra Fort” inscription, and it has been the subject of extensive conservation work in the post-Independence period.

The Red Fort of Delhi

The Red Fort in Delhi, commissioned by the emperor Shah Jahan in 1638 and substantially complete by 1648, represents the architectural apogee of the Mughal palace tradition. The complex includes the Diwan-i-Aam, the Diwan-i-Khas, the Khas Mahal, the Rang Mahal, the Mumtaz Mahal, the Shah Burj, the Hayat Baksh garden, the Nahr-i-Bihisht water channel, and the principal gateways and service buildings. The complex is inscribed on the UNESCO World Heritage List, and the main gate of the fort has served as the venue for the annual Independence Day address of the prime minister of India since 1947.

The Lahore Fort

The Lahore Fort, located in the northwestern corner of the walled city of Lahore, has a long history of construction and modification, with substantial rebuilding under the emperors Akbar, Jahangir, and Shah Jahan. The surviving structures within the fort include the Diwan-i-Aam, the Diwan-i-Khas, the Sheesh Mahal, the Naulakha, the Moti Masjid (Pearl Mosque), the Hazuri Bagh garden, the Baradari of Ranjit Singh, and a number of other buildings. The complex is inscribed on the UNESCO World Heritage List as part of the “Fort and Shalamar Gardens, Lahore” inscription.

The Fatehpur Sikri Palace Complex

The palace complex of Fatehpur Sikri, located on the rocky ridge outside Agra, was built by Akbar in the 1570s and substantially abandoned by the 1580s. The complex includes the Diwan-i-Aam, the Diwan-i-Khas, the Panch Mahal, the Mariam-uz-Zamani Palace (popularly the “Jodha Bai Palace”), the Turkish Sultana’s House, the Mariam’s House, Birbal’s House, the Anup Talao, and a number of other structures. The complex is inscribed on the UNESCO World Heritage List, and it represents surviving examples of the Akbar period.

The Allahabad Fort

The Allahabad Fort, located at the confluence of the rivers Ganges and Yamuna in Allahabad, was built by the emperor Akbar in 1583, and it served as an important imperial residence throughout the Mughal period. The fort is not generally open to the public, since it remains in the custody of the Indian Army, but the surviving structures within the fort include a number of important Mughal buildings, including the Jama Masjid, the Zenana palace, and the pre-Mughal Ashoka Pillar incorporated into the fort.

Decorative Programmes

The decorative vocabulary of the Mughal palace drew on a wide range of techniques, including carved stone, carved and painted plaster, tilework, painted surfaces, gilt and lacquer, mirror-work, and stone inlay. The application of these techniques varied by period, by region, and by the function of the building, with the public buildings typically more restrained and the residential buildings more elaborate. The most distinctive features of the late imperial style include the polychrome inlay of semi-precious stones, the use of carved and pierced marble screens, the inlay of calligraphic inscriptions in black marble, and the careful application of gold leaf and pigment in the interior surfaces.

The use of mirror-work, the technique of setting small pieces of mirror into plaster or stucco, was a particular feature of the later palace tradition, and the Shish Mahal of the Lahore Fort and the mirror-work of the Red Fort interiors are particularly fine examples. The technique, derived from the Persian tradition, was used to produce a glittering effect that was particularly effective in the candlelight of the imperial chambers, and the surviving examples give some indication of the visual richness of the original interiors.

The use of painted and gilded plaster was also a particular feature of the residential vocabulary. The interior surfaces of the Khas Mahal, the Rang Mahal, and the Shish Mahal were typically covered with painted and gilded decoration, and the surviving fragments of the original decoration give some indication of the visual richness of the original interiors. Much of this decoration has been lost, but the restoration work in the post-Independence period has allowed some of the original character of these interiors to be recovered.

The Symbolic Programme

The Mughal palace was understood by its patrons and its visitors as a representation of imperial authority and the cosmic order. The layout of the complex, the sequence of spaces, the integration of the buildings with the surrounding gardens and water features, and the use of axial planning and controlled access were all elements of a symbolic programme that linked the practical functions of the palace to the representation of imperial order. The use of the charbagh garden plan, the symbolism of the four rivers of paradise, and the integration of the building with the surrounding landscape all contributed to the identification of the palace with the Islamic vision of paradise.

The use of calligraphy, including the inlay of Quranic verses and Persian poetry, was a particular feature of the symbolic programme. The celebrated inscription of the poet Amir Khusrau on the Diwan-i-Khas of the Red Fort, the calligraphy of the Taj Mahal, and the inscriptions of the Buland Darwaza at Fatehpur Sikri are all examples of the careful use of calligraphy as a symbolic element. The inscriptions were typically chosen for their resonance with themes of divine light, paradise, judgement, and the legitimacy of the ruling dynasty.

The palace was also understood as a representation of the relationship between the emperor and his household. The careful separation of the public and private spaces, the integration of the zenana with the imperial residence, and the use of controlled access were all elements of a programme that linked the practical functions of the household to the representation of the imperial family.

Decline and Legacy

The tradition of the Mughal palace continued to be deployed in the provincial courts and the successor states well into the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, and the palaces of Hyderabad, Lucknow, Murshidabad, and the Rajput courts represent later developments of the tradition. The European colonial encounter also engaged with the Mughal palace vocabulary, and the colonial palaces of the period often combined Mughal forms with European elements.

The major surviving Mughal palace complexes are now protected as cultural heritage sites, and the Red Fort, the Agra Fort, the Lahore Fort, and the Fatehpur Sikri palace complex are all inscribed on the UNESCO World Heritage List.

For the broader context of the imperial building tradition, the Mughal architecture overview pillar offers a synthetic account. The cluster pages on the Taj Mahal, the Red Fort, the Fatehpur Sikri, the Mughal gardens, and the Mughal tombs treat the related themes in greater depth. The political context of the imperial building tradition is treated in the history overview.

Sources

Catherine B. Asher, Architecture of Mughal India (1992), ch. 5.
Ebba Koch, Mughal Architecture: An Outline of Its History and Development (1526–1858) (1991), pp. 56–80.