Mughal Successor States in the Eighteenth Century

The Mughal successor states of the eighteenth century were the regional polities that emerged from the political fragmentation of the Mughal empire in the decades after the death of Aurangzeb in 1707. The successor states included the major provincial powers of Hyderabad, Awadh, Bengal, the Maratha Confederacy, Mysore, the Sikh Empire, the Rajput states, and Rohilkhand, as well as a number of smaller polities. The successor states were the principal political actors of the eighteenth century, and the subsequent British expansion, examined in the British East India Company and the Mughals page, took place significantly at their expense. The principal treatment of the Mughal decline is the Mughal decline overview page, and the parallel account of the Sikh state is the rise of the Sikh power page.

Hyderabad under the Nizams

The state of Hyderabad, founded by Nizam-ul-Mulk Asaf Jah in 1724, was the most important of the Mughal successor states in the Deccan. The Nizam, who had been the Mughal viceroy of the Deccan under the emperor Muhammad Shah, established a significant independent state that controlled the greater part of the southern Indian peninsula. The Hyderabad state was a major centre of the cultural traditions of the late Mughal period, and the city of Hyderabad developed as a major urban centre under the patronage of the Nizams. The Nizams were Shia Muslims, and the cultural traditions of the Hyderabad court reflected the Shia and the broader Indian Muslim traditions.

The Hyderabad state was a major political actor of the eighteenth century, and the Nizams played important roles in the politics of the period. The Nizam was a major ally of the British East India Company, and the subsidiary alliance of 1798, examined in the relevant page, established the British position in the Deccan. The Hyderabad state, examined in the Nizam of Hyderabad page, was of the Indian successor states. The Nizams maintained a degree of independence even under the subsidiary alliance, and the Hyderabad state survived as a major Indian polity until 1948.

Awadh under the Nawabs

The state of Awadh, established in 1722 by Saadat Khan Burhan-ul-Mulk and developed by his successors, particularly Safdar Jang and Shuja-ud-Daulah, was the most important of the Mughal successor states in the Ganges plain. The Nawabs of Awadh controlled a considerable territory in the upper Ganges, and the city of Lucknow, which Saadat Khan made his capital, developed as a major urban centre. The Awadh state was a major centre of the cultural traditions of the late Mughal period, and the court at Lucknow was a major patron of the Urdu literary and musical traditions.

The Awadh state was a major political actor of the eighteenth century, and the Nawabs played important roles in the politics of the period. The Nawab Shuja-ud-Daulah was a major figure in the politics of north India, and his major defeat at the Battle of Buxar 1764 and the Treaty of Allahabad 1765 was a major event in the history of the state. The Awadh state was eventually annexed by the British in 1856 under the doctrine of lapse, and the annexation was a major cause of the rebellion of 1857.

Bengal under the Nawabs

The state of Bengal, the wealthiest of the Mughal provinces, was governed in the early eighteenth century by a series of Mughal governors, most notably Murshid Quli Khan, who developed a significant revenue system based on the cooperation of the local Hindu and Muslim zamindars. The Bengal state was a major centre of the Indian Ocean trade, and the port cities of Calcutta, Hooghly, and Dacca were major centres of the textile trade. The Bengal state was a major political actor of the eighteenth century, and the Nawabs played important roles in the politics of the period.

The Bengal state was effectively taken over by the British after the Battle of Plassey 1757, and the Diwani of Bengal 1765 gave the Company the right to collect the land revenue of the province. The Bengal state, examined in the British East India Company and the Mughals page, was the foundation of the British presence in India, and the considerable transfer of wealth from Bengal to Britain, examined in the economic decline of the Mughal Empire page, was a major event in the economic history of the early modern world.

The Maratha Confederacy

The Maratha Confederacy, examined in detail in the rise of the Maratha power page, was the most expansive of the Indian successor states. The Confederacy, which was based on the Peshwa’s government at Pune and a network of Maratha sardars, controlled a vast area from the borders of Bengal to the gates of Delhi. The Maratha state was founded by Shivaji in the seventeenth century, and it expanded under Bajirao I and the Maratha expansion in the eighteenth century to become the dominant political power in India. The Maratha Confederacy was eventually defeated by the British in the Anglo-Maratha Wars of the early nineteenth century, and the consequences of the defeat are examined in the rebellion of 1857 page.

Mysore

The state of Mysore, based on the city of Mysore and the surrounding territories in the southern Deccan, was a major Indian successor state of the eighteenth century. The state was ruled by Hyder Ali and his son Tipu Sultan in the late eighteenth century, and the two rulers were major political and military figures. The Mysore state was a major centre of the military and cultural traditions of south India, and Tipu Sultan in particular was a major figure in the politics of the period.

The Mysore state was a major target of the British expansion, and the British fought a series of wars with Mysore in the late eighteenth century, the most important of which were the Anglo-Mysore Wars of 1767–1769, 1780–1784, and 1799. The defeat of Tipu Sultan in 1799 and the partition of Mysore were major events in the history of the British presence in India, and the consequences are examined in the British East India Company and the Mughals page. The Mysore state, which had been a major Indian power, was reduced to a dependent position under the British.

The Sikh Empire

The Sikh Empire, founded by Ranjit Singh in 1799 and based at Lahore, was a major Indian successor state of the early nineteenth century. The Sikh state, examined in detail in the rise of the Sikh power page, controlled a major territory in the Punjab and the northwest, and the Lahore court was a major centre of the cultural and political traditions of the Punjab. The Sikh Empire was a major military power, and Ranjit Singh maintained a significant army trained by European officers.

The Sikh Empire was a major political actor of the early nineteenth century, and the British fought a series of wars with the Sikhs in the 1840s, the most important of which were the Anglo-Sikh Wars of 1845–1846 and 1848–1849. The defeat of the Sikh state in 1849 and the annexation of the Punjab were major events in the history of the British presence in India, and the consequences of the annexation are examined in the British East India Company and the Mughals and the rebellion of 1857 pages.

The Rajput States

The Rajput states of Rajasthan, examined in the religious policies and alienation of subject communities page, were major Indian polities of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. The Rajput states, which had been a defining feature of the Mughal political order since Akbar’s reign, were brought into subsidiary alliance with the British in the early nineteenth century under the subsidiary alliance system. The Rajput states survived as a major feature of the British Indian political order, and the rulers of the major Rajput states played important roles in the politics of the period.

The Rajput states, examined in detail in the religious policies and alienation of subject communities page, were major centres of the cultural and political traditions of Rajasthan. The Rajput states played important roles in the rebellion of 1857, and several of the major Rajput rulers, including the rulers of Jodhpur and Mewar, were major figures in the rebellion. The consequences of the rebellion for the Rajput states are examined in the relevant cluster page.

Rohilkhand

The Rohilkhand state, based on the region of Rohilkhand in the upper Doab and controlled by a community of Rohilla Afghans, was a major Indian successor state of the late eighteenth century. The Rohilla state was founded by Ali Muhammad Khan in the 1740s, and the state was a military power in the late eighteenth century. The Rohilla state was a major participant in the Third Battle of Panipat 1761, and the Rohilla leaders, particularly Najib-ud-Daulah, were major figures in the politics of the period.

The Rohilla state was eventually annexed by the Nawab of Awadh in 1774, with the considerable cooperation of the British, and the annexation was a major event in the history of north India. The consequences of the annexation are examined in the mughal successor states and the British East India Company and the Mughals pages.

The Cultural Continuation

The successor states were major centres of the cultural traditions of the late Mughal period. The courts of Hyderabad, Lucknow, Pune, Mysore, Lahore, and the Rajput capitals were major centres of the Urdu, Persian, Marathi, Punjabi, and Rajasthani literary and artistic traditions, and the cultural traditions of the late Mughal period were significantly preserved in the successor states. The dispersal of the Mughal artistic tradition to the successor states is examined in the Mughal culture and society and Mughal art pages.

The cultural continuation was particularly important in the areas of music, painting, poetry, and architecture. The successor states patronised the major artists of the late Mughal period, and the cultural traditions of the imperial Mughal court were significantly preserved in the successor states. The cultural context of the successor states is examined in the Mughal culture and society and Mughal art pages.

The Eventual British Annexation

The successor states were progressively annexed by the British in the late eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, and the British annexation of the successor states was the principal means by which the British raj was established. The principal instruments of annexation were the subsidiary alliance system and the doctrine of lapse, and the annexation of the major successor states was significantly complete by 1856, the year before the rebellion of 1857. The consequences of the British annexation of the successor states are examined in the relevant pages, and the broader Mughal decline overview treats the annexation of the successor states as a major event in the history of the British presence in India.

The successor states that survived the British annexation, particularly Hyderabad, the Rajput states, and a number of other smaller polities, were major features of the British Indian political order until 1947. The surviving states were eventually integrated into the Indian Union and the Pakistani state at the partition of 1947, and the consequences of the integration are examined in the colonial Mughal legacy page.

Sources

C.A. Bayly, Indian Society and the Making of the British Empire (NCHI II.1, 1988), chs. 1–4.
Muzaffar Alam, The Crisis of Empire in Mughal North India (1986).