Mughal Military Uniforms and Equipment

The personal equipment of the Mughal soldier, examined in the Mughal cavalry and Mughal artillery and firearms pages, was the product of a long tradition of Indian and Central Asian military craftsmanship. The Mughal soldier of the seventeenth century was equipped with a distinctive set of arms and armour that combined the Central Asian inheritance of the Timurid and Uzbeg traditions with the older Indian tradition of the Rajput and Sultanate periods, and the equipment of the soldier was the subject of a substantial body of Mughal court painting and a substantial branch of the imperial karkhanas. The principal elements of the equipment, treated below in approximate order of importance, were the helmet, the body armour, the shield, the sword and dagger, the bow, the matchlock, and the horse equipment. The place of arms and armour in the broader visual culture of the empire is examined on the Mughal art and Mughal costumes pages, and the manufacture of arms and armour is treated in the context of the Mughal administration.

The Helmet and the Headgear

The principal headgear of the Mughal soldier was the kulah, a pointed or rounded helmet of metal construction, typically of iron or steel, often with a prominent plume-holder at the apex. The kulah was worn with a chainmail neck-guard, the barghast, that protected the neck and the upper chest, and a series of articulated plates, the dastana, that protected the face and the temples. The most prestigious helmets were made of watered steel, the product of the famous crucible-steel industry of Hyderabad and Golconda, and the surface of the helmet was often decorated with gold inlay and with engraved inscriptions in Persian.

The lower-ranking soldiers wore a simpler helmet, the top-i-kalaw, a conical or rounded iron cap with a small neck-guard. The top-i-kalaw was the standard headgear of the matchlock infantry and of the lower ranks of the cavalry, and it was considerably cheaper than the more elaborate kulah of the elite. The most expensive helmets, those of the emperor and of the great nobles, were often set with precious stones and were decorated with elaborate gold and silver inlay. The manufacture of helmets was a specialist branch of the imperial karkhanas, and the most prestigious specimens were the work of armourers from the Punjab and from the city of Lahore.

The Body Armour

The body armour of the Mughal soldier was of two principal types. The first was the chainmail coat, the zirah, a long-sleeved coat of interlocking iron rings, reaching to the knees and supplemented by a divided skirt, the fauta, that protected the lower body. The zirah was flexible and relatively light, and it was the standard armour of the cavalry and of the higher-ranking infantry. The second was the plate coat, the char-a’ina, a coat of articulated iron plates, typically four large plates covering the chest and the back, supplemented by smaller plates at the shoulders, the elbows, and the knees. The char-a’ina was heavier and more protective than the zirah, and it was the standard armour of the elite cavalry and of the imperial bodyguard.

The manufacture of body armour was a substantial industry, and the most prestigious pieces were made of watered steel, the product of the crucible-steel industry of the Deccan and the Punjab. The surface of the armour was often decorated with gold inlay, with engraved inscriptions, and with elaborate chasing, and the most expensive pieces were set with precious stones. The cost of a complete suit of armour for a high-ranking noble could run to several thousand rupees, and the manufacture of armour for the imperial household was a substantial item of imperial expenditure.

The Shield

The shield, the dhal or sipar, was a standard item of the Mughal soldier’s equipment, and it was used in conjunction with the sword in close combat. The shield was typically of circular or oval form, with a diameter of some fifty to sixty centimetres, and it was constructed of hide, of wood, or of metal. The hide shield was the most common, and it was made of thick buffalo hide, often with a metal boss in the centre and a series of metal bosses around the rim. The metal shield, made of steel or of brass, was more prestigious and more expensive, and it was used principally by the elite cavalry and by the imperial bodyguard.

The most expensive shields were those of the imperial household, and they were often decorated with gold and silver inlay, with engraved inscriptions in Persian, and with elaborate chasing. The shield was used in close combat to deflect the enemy’s sword, and the combination of the shield and the sword was the standard close-combat weapon of the Mughal infantry. The shield also had a ceremonial role, and the shields of the imperial household were often inscribed with the name of the emperor and the year of their manufacture.

The Sword and the Dagger

The sword, the shamshir or the talwar, was the principal sidearm of the Mughal soldier. The shamshir was a curved, single-edged sword of Persian design, with a shallow curve that made it an ideal cutting weapon. The talwar was a similar weapon, but with a slightly different curve and a broader blade. Both types were manufactured in the principal centres of the empire, particularly in Lahore, in Agra, and in the Rajput kingdoms of Rajasthan. The most prestigious swords were made of watered steel, and the surface of the blade was often decorated with gold inlay and with engraved inscriptions. The hilt of the sword was typically of jade, of ivory, or of precious metal, and the most expensive hilts were set with precious stones.

The dagger, the khanjar or the jamdhar, was a standard item of the Mughal soldier’s equipment, and it was worn at the waist. The dagger had a double-edged blade and a distinctive hilt, often with a pistol-grip shape that made it an effective stabbing weapon. The most prestigious daggers were those of the imperial household, and they were often set with precious stones and were decorated with elaborate gold and silver inlay. The dagger also had a ceremonial role, and the daggers of the imperial household were often inscribed with the name of the emperor and the year of their manufacture.

The Bow, the Matchlock, and the Horse Equipment

The horse equipment of the Mughal cavalry, treated in detail on the war horses in the Mughal military page, included the saddle, the bridle, the bit, the stirrups, and the various straps and buckles. The most prestigious saddles were made of velvet, of silk, or of fine leather, and they were often set with precious stones and were decorated with elaborate gold and silver embroidery. The horse equipment of the imperial household was a substantial industry, and the manufacture of saddles, bridles, and bits was a specialist branch of the imperial karkhanas.

The Symbolic Significance of Arms and Armour

The arms and armour of the Mughal soldier were not merely practical objects but also symbols of rank, of status, and of imperial authority. The elaborate decoration of the most prestigious pieces, the use of precious materials, and the inscriptions in Persian all served to reinforce the symbolic significance of the equipment. The arms and armour of the emperor and of the great nobles were often displayed in the imperial treasury, and they featured prominently in the court paintings that are examined on the Mughal art page. The symbolic significance of arms and armour is also treated in the context of the Mughal festivals and Mughal court culture pages.

Sources

• S.A. Khan, Mughal Art of War (2012).