Mughal Festivals and Entertainment: Court Spectacle and Imperial Ritual

The ceremonial life of the Mughal court was structured by an elaborate calendar of festivals, religious observances, and court entertainments. The two Eids, the Milad-un-Nabi, the Shab-i-Barat, the Nawroz (the Persian New Year), the birthdays of the emperor, the royal weddings, the accession ceremonies, the jharokha-i-darshan, the tuladan (weighing ceremony), the shikar (hunting expeditions), the formal durbar assemblies, the musical mehfil gatherings, the Sufi urs festivals, the regional Hindu festivals occasionally acknowledged at court, and the various entertainments of the imperial household together constituted ceremonial systems of the early modern world. The festival calendar served to consolidate the imperial ideology, to maintain the religious authority of the dynasty, to mark the seasonal rhythms of the court, to display the wealth and power of the emperor, and to provide opportunities for the formal and informal interactions among the emperor, the princes, the nobles, the religious establishment, and the wider society. The history of the festival calendar, the principal court entertainments, the ceremonial protocols, the regional and religious festivals, and the role of festivals in the imperial ideology of the Mughals are treated in detail below.

The Festival Calendar of the Mughal Court

The Two Eids and the Milad-un-Nabi

The most important religious festivals of the imperial Muslim calendar were the two Eids: Eid al-Fitr, marking the end of the month of Ramadan, and Eid al-Adha, marking the culmination of the haj pilgrimage. Both Eids were major ceremonial occasions at the Mughal court, marked by the namaz-e-Eid (the special festival prayer) at the Eidgah (the open-air prayer ground outside the city), the formal durbar assembly, the distribution of gifts and alms, the slaughter of sacrificial animals (qurbani), the nazar (gift-offering) of the principal nobles, the khil’at (dress of honour) conferred by the emperor, the firing of the imperial top khana (artillery), the illumination of the imperial palaces, the public entertainment at the Naqqar Khana, and the distribution of food to the poor (langar). The Milad-un-Nabi, the celebration of the Prophet Muhammad’s birthday, was similarly marked at the court, with recitations of na’at and salam, the lighting of the imperial palaces, and the distribution of sweets and alms.

The Shab-i-Barat, the night of forgiveness, was another major festival of the court, observed on the fifteenth night of the month of Sha’ban. The Shab-i-Barat was marked by the illumination of the imperial palaces, the qira’at (recitation) of the Quran in the imperial mosque, the firing of the artillery, the distribution of sweets and alms, the mehfil (gatherings) of the Sufi orders, and the general festivity of the court. The festival was particularly important in the popular religious life of the empire, and the Shab-i-Barat of Delhi, Agra, and Lahore were major public events of the year.

The Nauroz and the Persian New Year

The Nauroz (also Nawroz or Nowruz), the Persian New Year, was festivals of the imperial calendar. The festival was celebrated on the day of the vernal equinox, the first day of the month of Farvardin, and it marked the beginning of the new solar year in the Persian calendar. The Nauroz was originally a Zoroastrian festival, adopted by the Persian Muslims and incorporated into the imperial calendar of the Mughals. The festival was marked by the formal durbar assembly, the nazar of the principal nobles, the conferring of khil’at and other honours, the firing of the artillery, the mehfil of poets and musicians, the shikar expeditions of the imperial household, and the distribution of gifts and alms. The Nauroz of the imperial court was ceremonial occasions of the year, and the festival was an important element of the Persianate cultural identity of the dynasty.

The Nauroz was also celebrated in the regional courts of the empire. The Nauroz of the Nizams of Hyderabad, the Nawabs of Awadh, the Nawabs of Bengal, and the various Rajput and Deccani courts was an important ceremonial occasion, and the Nauroz gifts and nazar of these courts to the emperor were a recognised element of the imperial ceremonial.

Royal Weddings, Accessions, and the Imperial Birthday

The royal wedding was ceremonial occasions of the imperial court. The marriage of an emperor or a prince was a major state event, marked by the formal betrothal (mangni), the sagai (engagement), the mehndi (henna) ceremony, the baraat (procession), the nikah (marriage ceremony) at the imperial mosque, the walima (wedding banquet), the distribution of gifts and alms, the firing of the artillery, the illumination of the imperial palaces, the mehfil of musicians and dancers, the formal durbar assembly, and the nazar and khil’at of the principal nobles. The most elaborate royal weddings of the period, including the marriages of Jahangir to Nur Jahan, of Shah Jahan to Mumtaz Mahal, of Aurangzeb to Dilras Banu Begum, and of the various princes and princesses of the dynasty, were major state events that lasted for weeks and involved the entire imperial establishment.

The accession ceremony, the julus or takht-nishini (enthronement), was another major ceremonial event. The accession of a new emperor was marked by the formal qasida (ode) of accession read at the Diwan-i-Am, the nazar of the principal nobles, the khil’at conferred on the new emperor, the firing of the artillery, the distribution of alms, the mehfil of poets and musicians, the formal recognition of the new emperor by the ulama, the mansabdari nobles, the Rajput and other regional rulers, and the foreign embassies, and the public celebrations of the city. The accession of Akbar in 1556, of Jahangir in 1605, of Shah Jahan in 1628, and of Aurangzeb in 1659 were all major events of the imperial ceremonial.

The birthday of the emperor (sal-i-takallud) was another major festival. The birthday was marked by the formal durbar assembly, the nazar of the principal nobles, the conferring of honours and titles, the firing of the artillery, the illumination of the imperial palaces, the mehfil of poets and musicians, the distribution of alms, the public entertainment at the Naqqar Khana, and the formal qasida of the court poets. The birthdays of Akbar, Jahangir, Shah Jahan, and Aurangzeb were all major ceremonial events.

Holi, Diwali, and the Hindu Festivals at Court

The Holi, the festival of colours, was occasionally celebrated at the Mughal court, particularly during the reigns of Akbar and Jahangir. The Ain-i-Akbari describes the celebration of Holi at Akbar’s court, with the spraying of coloured water, the throwing of coloured powders, the mehfil of musicians, the bonfires of the Holika ritual, and the general festivity of the occasion. The Diwali, the festival of lights, was similarly celebrated at the Mughal court, with the illumination of the imperial palaces, the firing of fireworks, the nazar of the principal nobles, and the mehfil of musicians. The celebration of Hindu festivals at the Mughal court was a particular feature of the reigns of Akbar and Jahangir, and it was a deliberate element of the imperial policy of religious conciliation.

The festival of Raksha Bandhan, the Hindu festival of the brother-sister bond, was also celebrated at the Mughal court, and the Ain-i-Akbari describes the elaborate ceremonial of the festival in the imperial household. The festival of Dussehra, the Hindu festival of the victory of Rama over Ravana, was also occasionally celebrated at the court, with the Ram Lila (the dramatic performance of the Ramayana) performed in the imperial palace and the formal durbar assembly held on the occasion. The celebration of Hindu festivals at the court was a particular mark of the syncretic religious policy of Akbar and Jahangir, and it was a deliberate expression of the imperial ideology of the period.

The Tuladan and the Jharokha-i-Darshan

The Tuladan: The Weighing Ceremony

The tuladan (also tulabhdana or tula-bharan) was ceremonial institutions of the Mughal court. The ceremony was held on the emperor’s birthday, and the emperor was weighed against gold, silver, precious stones, grain, salt, and other commodities. The commodities were then distributed to the poor, the religious establishments, and the courtiers, and the tuladan was a major public expression of the imperial munificence. The tuladan was celebrated with particular elaboration by Akbar, Jahangir, and Shah Jahan, and the ceremonial was a major event of the imperial calendar. The tuladan of Akbar against gold, silver, precious stones, grain, salt, and other commodities is described in detail in the Ain-i-Akbari, and the tuladan of Jahangir and Shah Jahan are described in the Tuzuk-i-Jahangiri and the Padshahnama respectively. The ceremony combined Hindu and Muslim elements — the tulabhdana of the Hindu tradition, the sadaqa of the Muslim tradition, and the weighing of the Sasanian tradition — and it was a particular expression of the syncretic religious policy of the dynasty.

The Jharokha-i-Darshan: The Daily Royal Audience

The jharokha-i-darshan was the daily royal audience at which the emperor appeared in state on the jharokha (the ornate projecting window) of the imperial palace, generally in the morning, to receive the nazar (gift-offering) of the principal nobles and to grant the darshan (auspicious view) of himself to the assembled public. The institution was introduced by Akbar in the 1570s, partly in imitation of the darshan of the Hindu and Jain traditions, and it became ceremonial institutions of the Mughal court. The jharokha-i-darshan was held in the principal cities of the empire — Agra, Delhi, Lahore, Fatehpur Sikri, and later Shahjahanabad — and the ceremony was a major public event. The emperor, dressed in the formal court costume, appeared on the jharokha of the palace, the naqqara (drums) of the Naqqar Khana played the imperial salute, the qasida of the court poets was recited, the nazar of the principal nobles was presented, the khil’at was conferred on those honoured, and the assembled public had the darshan of the emperor.

The jharokha-i-darshan was a major element of the imperial ideology. The darshan of the emperor was considered an auspicious occasion, and the public appearance of the ruler was a religious and political act of great importance. The institution was particularly important for the consolidation of the imperial authority in the provinces, and the jharokha-i-darshan of the regional governors, who appeared in state on the jharokha of the provincial palace, was a recognised element of the provincial ceremonial.

The Shikar: The Royal Hunt

The shikar (royal hunt) was and important court entertainments of the Mughal period. The hunt was not merely a sport but a major state institution, an exercise of military training, a demonstration of imperial authority, a survey of the imperial territories, and a major ceremonial occasion. The Mughal hunt was organised on a vast scale, with the emperor and the principal nobles, the bandagan, the mansabdari nobles, the Rajput and other regional rulers, the ahadi and du-aspah cavalry, the infantry, the qasid, the farrash, the bawarchi (cooks), the shikarban (huntsmen), the mir shikar, the qamargha (beaters), and the various karkhanas of the imperial encampment, all moving together with the imperial otaq (circular tent) encampment, the chob (tent poles) and the kilim (carpets), the athah khana (elephant stables), the asp khana (horse stables), and the various other elements of the imperial establishment.

The Mughal hunt was conducted in a number of forms. The qamargha hunt was the most elaborate, in which a large circular area of forest or scrubland was surrounded by a ring of beaters, often numbering in the thousands, who gradually closed in on the game, driving the animals toward the centre where the emperor and the principal nobles waited. The sair-i-ghaib (chase) was a form of the hunt in which the emperor and the nobles pursued the game on horseback, often with cheetahs, falcons, and hunting dogs. The bagh-iarah (tiger hunt) was a particular form of the hunt in which the tiger was the principal quarry. The hunt with cheetahs was a particular Mughal institution, and the yuz (cheetah) of the imperial hunt was a major establishment. The hunt with falcons was also a major institution, and the shahin falcons (shahin-i-mubarak) of the imperial hunt were particularly prized.

The shikar of the Mughal court was both a military training and a major state occasion. The hunt served to keep the cavalry in fighting trim, to demonstrate the imperial authority in the regions, to allow the emperor to survey the territories of the empire, to mark the seasonal rhythms of the court, and to provide opportunities for the formal and informal interactions of the emperor and the nobles. The shikar expeditions of Akbar, Jahangir, and Shah Jahan are extensively documented in the Akbarnama, the Tuzuk-i-Jahangiri, and the Padshahnama, and the shikar of the imperial court was hunting traditions of the early modern world.

Music, Dance, and the Court Mehfil

Music and the Naqqar Khana

Music held a central place in the cultural life of the Mughal court. The naqqar khana (the drum house) was the principal musical establishment of the imperial palace, and its naqqara (drums), nafir (trumpets), karna (kettle drums), and surnai (shawms) regulated the daily life of the palace, the timings of prayer, the calls to the imperial banquet, the ceremonial processions, and the jharokha-i-darshan. The naqqar khana was a substantial establishment, and the mir naqqar khana (master of the drum house) was an important office. The principal court musicians, particularly those of the Seni, Kachhwaha, Rababi, and Kalawant traditions, were highly paid and held important positions in the imperial household, and the music of the imperial mehfil (formal gathering) was a recognised element of the court ceremonial.

The mehfil (formal musical gathering) was a central institution of the imperial court. The mehfil of the imperial household, the mehfil of the great nobles, the mehfil of the Sufi lodges, and the mehfil of the regional courts were all important cultural events. The qawwali (Sufi devotional singing) of the Chishti, Naqshbandi, and other Sufi orders, the marsiya (Shia elegy) of the Shia tradition, the dhrupad and khayal of the Hindustani classical tradition, the tarana of the Central Asian tradition, and the various ragas and talas of the Indian and Persian musical systems were all part of the imperial musical repertoire. The principal musicians of the court, including Tansen, Baz Bahadur, and the various masters of the Seni and Kachhwaha traditions, were among the most celebrated artists of the period.

The Tansen Tradition and the Seni Gharana

The Seni gharana (the Seni school of music), founded by Tansen (c. 1500s–1586), the most celebrated musician of Akbar’s court, was musical traditions of the period. Tansen, a Hindu convert to Islam, was originally from Gwalior and was associated with the court of Raja Man Singh Tomar before joining Akbar’s court. He was awarded the title Kaviraja and the mian tansen of the imperial mehfil, and he is traditionally credited with the composition of several ragas, including Miyan ki Sarang, Miyan ki Todi, and Darbari Kanada. The Darbari Kanada, the raga of the imperial court, is traditionally attributed to Tansen, and the Seni gharana continued to be musical traditions of North India into the modern period.

Dance, the Tawaif, and the Courtly Performance

The place of dance in Mughal court life is complex. The Mughal elite did not generally perform dance themselves, although they patronised musicians and dancers, particularly the tawaif (courtesan) tradition of the urban culture. The Kathak tradition of North Indian classical dance, which developed in the courts of the Nawabs of Awadh and the Rajput princes, was closely related to the broader Kshatriya dance tradition of the region, and it drew on both the bhakti devotional dance of the temple tradition and the mujra (performance) tradition of the courtly courtesan. The tawaif of Delhi, Lucknow, Hyderabad, and Lahore were major cultural figures, and the mehfil of the tawaif was a recognised institution of urban Muslim culture.

The mushaira (formal poetry gathering) was another major cultural institution of the court. The mushaira brought together the leading Persian and Urdu poets of the period for a formal evening of poetry recitation, and the qasida and ghazal of the court poets were major literary events. The mushaira of Akbar, Jahangir, and Shah Jahan are described in the court chronicles, and the mushaira tradition continued under the Nawabs of Awadh, the Nizams of Hyderabad, and the later Mughal court at Delhi.

Entertainment: The Qara-Jargu, the Chowgan, and the Court Games

The Mughal court maintained a number of traditional Central Asian games and entertainments. The qara-jargu (also qara-jargu) was a Central Asian game played by the ladies of the harem, in which a silver coin was rolled along a strip of muslin and the players had to catch it with their hands as it was rolled; the game was a recognised entertainment of the imperial zenana. The chowgan (polo) was a major sport of the Mughal court, played by the emperor, the princes, and the great nobles; the chowgan of the imperial court was a major event, and the chowgan ground of the imperial palace was a substantial establishment. The chovgan-i-aspi, the imperial polo ground, was located in the principal cities of the empire, and the chowgan matches of the court were major ceremonial occasions.

Other entertainments of the court included the kopek (the imperial hunting dogs), the baheliq (the trained cheetahs), the falconry of the imperial shahin khana, the elephant processions of the imperial farrash khana, the naqqar khana music of the formal court, the qawwali and marsiya devotional performances of the Sufi and Shia establishments, the mushaira poetry gatherings, the mela (fair) and bazaar of the imperial cities, the tazia (Shia mourning processions) of the Muharram, the jashn-i-baharan (spring festival), the jashn-i-khash (royal feast), and the various other public entertainments of the imperial household.

The Royal Tour and the Imperial Itinerary

The royal tour (safari, daftari) was another major element of the imperial ceremonial. The emperor, the umara, the bandagan, the qasid, the farrash, the bawarchi, the karkhanas, the athah khana, the asp khana, and the shahin khana would all move together in a vast imperial encampment from one city to another, typically between the principal imperial residences of Delhi, Agra, Lahore, Fatehpur Sikri, Ajmer, and the various regional centres. The daftari of the imperial tour was a major logistical enterprise, and the imperial camp, with its otaq (circular tents), chob (tent poles), kilim (carpets), saz-i-khana (furnishings), and karkhana (workshops), was a substantial mobile establishment. The royal tour allowed the emperor to survey the imperial territories, to inspect the provincial administration, to mark the imperial presence in the regions, to provide darshan to the population, and to provide opportunities for the ceremonial and informal interactions of the court.

The Role of Festivals in Imperial Ideology

The festival calendar of the Mughal court served to consolidate the imperial ideology in a number of ways. The festivals marked the sacred time of the imperial year, distinguishing the ceremonial rhythms of the court from the ordinary time of the calendar. They served as occasions for the distribution of imperial munificence, the conferring of honours, the granting of petitions, the display of imperial wealth, and the public langar to the poor. They reinforced the religious authority of the dynasty, both within the Islamic framework of the court and in the syncretic engagements with the Hindu, Jain, Sikh, and other traditions of the empire. They served as occasions for the diplomatic recognition of the dynasty by the regional rulers, the foreign embassies, the ulama, and the Sufi establishments. They provided the setting for the literary, musical, and artistic life of the court, the mushaira, the mehfil, the qawwali, and the marsiya of the various traditions. They consolidated the public presence of the emperor in the principal cities of the empire, and they reinforced the darshan of the ruler as a central element of the imperial authority.

The festival calendar was also a means of political communication within the imperial establishment. The conferring of khil’at and the receipt of nazar at the festivals were major political acts, and the order of presentation at the durbar was a major mark of the rank of the noble. The festival of Nauroz, in particular, was a major occasion for the conferring of imperial honours, the announcement of appointments, the granting of mansabs and jagirs, and the formal recognition of the regional rulers.

Sources

Ruby Lal, Domesticity and Power in the Early Mughal World (2005), ch. 2.

For the broader context of Mughal cultural life, see the Mughal culture overview. The festival calendar was closely tied to the court ceremonial, treated in greater detail on the Mughal costumes and personal adornment page, and to the literary and musical life of the court, treated on the Mughal art and miniature painting and Mughal literature and languages pages. The food and cuisine of the festivals, including the langar and the walima of the various occasions, is treated on the Mughal cuisine page. The ceremonial of the jharokha-i-darshan and the durbar was a major element of the imperial authority and is treated in the entries on Akbar, who introduced the jharokha-i-darshan and the tuladan, on Jahangir, whose shikar expeditions were major state events, and on Shah Jahan, whose durbar was the most elaborate of the period. The decline of the festival calendar in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, as the imperial court contracted and the regional courts took over the ceremonial, is treated on the decline of the Mughal Empire page.