Mughal Costumes and Fashion: Dress, Textiles, and Personal Adornment

The court costume of the Mughal aristocracy, the textile tradition that supported it, and the elaborate culture of personal adornment that surrounded it are among the most distinctive features of the imperial period. The jama, the long-sleeved robe buttoned down the front; the angarkha, a similar garment tied at the side; the peshwaz and the farangi of the female court costume; the shalwar, the kurti, and the sari of the female and informal male costume; the pagri and dastar of the male head-dress; the patka, the waist sash; and the doshala, the double shawl, were all standard elements of the imperial wardrobe. The textile tradition that supported this costume was one of the most sophisticated in the early modern world, and Indian muslins, calicoes, silks, brocades, and embroidered fabrics were prized in European, West Asian, and Southeast Asian markets. The jewellery tradition of the period was equally elaborate, including the kundan setting, the meenakari enamel work, the sarpech headdress, the bazuband armlet, the haar necklace, the bala and jhumar hair ornaments, the hath phul hand ornament, and the use of diamonds from Golconda, emeralds from Colombia via Goa, rubies from Burma, sapphires from Sri Lanka, and pearls from Basra and the Persian Gulf. The history of Mughal costume, the textile tradition, the personal ornaments, the court ceremonial of dress, the regional variations, and the lasting influence of the Mughal style on modern Indian, Pakistani, and Bangladeshi formal wear are treated in detail below.

The Male Costume of the Mughal Court

The Jama, the Angarkha, and the Peshwaz

The principal male garment of the Mughal court was the jama, a long-sleeved, full-skirted robe, fitted at the waist and falling to the ankles or the floor. The jama was typically buttoned down the front with the gota (gold or silver lace) buttons, the tik of the buttons being a recognised element of the imperial wardrobe. The jama was made of a wide range of fabrics — muslin, silk, brocade, velvet, satin, and various fine kinkhwab (brocade) — and it was the formal court dress of the emperor, the princes, and the great nobles. The jama was typically worn over the qaba (a long under-tunic), the izar (loose trousers gathered at the ankle), and the payjama (a more fitted under-trouser), and it was complemented by the patka (waist sash), the doshala (double shawl), and the pagri (turban).

The angarkha was a similar garment, but tied at the side rather than buttoned down the front, and was typically associated with the raj (Hindu) nobles and the regional courts. The peshwaz was a similar open-fronted garment, typically worn by women, falling from the shoulders to the ankles, and belted at the waist with a kamarband or patka. The farangi, sometimes also called the farangi jama, was a long-skirted, European-inspired coat adopted at the Mughal court from the late seventeenth century, typically worn over the jama as a formal overcoat.

The Patka, the Doshala, and the Kamarband

The patka was the waist sash of the Mughal court, typically a long, narrow strip of fine silk, brocade, or muslin, tied around the waist over the jama and falling to the knees. The patka was a recognised element of the formal court dress, and the emperor and the great nobles maintained substantial collections of patkas of different colours, fabrics, and ornamentation, the kamarband (a more elaborate version, often made of gold and silver cloth) being a particular mark of high rank. The doshala, the double shawl, was a recognised element of court dress, typically a long shawl of fine wool (later the pashmina of Kashmir) draped over the shoulders and the upper arms. The kamarband, the more elaborate waist sash, was typically a band of gold or silver cloth, sometimes set with jewels, and was a particular mark of imperial or noble status.

The Dhoti, the Lungi, and the Sari

The dhoti (also called dhoti or panche) was the principal lower garment of the Hindu and the regional male costume, typically a long piece of unbleached cotton wrapped around the waist and drawn up between the legs, falling to the ankles. The lungi, a simpler version of the dhoti in coloured cotton, was typical of the lower classes, the working population, and the regional male costume of the Deccan and the South. The sari (or sari) was the principal garment of the female population, drawn around the waist, draped over the shoulder, and typically falling to the ankles; the sari of the imperial court was often of fine muslin, silk, or brocade, and the pallav (the decorative end of the sari) was often of contrasting fabric or with elaborate embroidery.

The Female Costume

The female costume of the Mughal court included the peshwaz, the farangi, the shalwar and kurti, the gharara, the lehenga, the choli, the odhni or dupatta, and the sari. The peshwaz was a long-skirted, open-fronted gown falling from the shoulders to the ankles and belted at the waist. The farangi was a more fitted, European-inspired gown, often with a trained skirt, that came into the Mughal court from the late seventeenth century. The shalwar and kurti combination, the loose trousers (shalwar) and the long tunic (kurti), was the standard informal female costume, and the gharara (a similar combination with a flared, divided skirt) became a particular mark of the Lucknow fashion in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. The lehenga and choli combination, the long, full skirt (lehenga) and the short, fitted bodice (choli), was typical of the Rajput and regional female costume. The odhni or dupatta was a long scarf draped over the head and the shoulders, and it served both as an ornament and as a purdah (modesty) cover.

The imperial zenana, the women’s quarters of the palace, maintained a substantial wardrobe of fine textiles and elaborate ornaments. The wardrobe of the imperial women — the wives, mothers, daughters, and sisters of the emperor — was in the early modern world, and the daulat khana-i-khas (the imperial treasury) maintained substantial reserves of fine muslin, silk, brocade, and jewellery for the use of the zenana. The tahbazari (a fine muslin of Dhaka, sometimes called abrawan or “running water”), the shabnam (a fine muslin of Dhaka, “morning dew”), the jamdani (a muslin of Dhaka with woven floral motifs), the baluchari (a silk of Bengal with figured motifs), the paithani (a silk of Paithan with gold borders), the kinkhwab (a brocade of Lahore, Ahmedabad, and Burhanpur with gold and silver thread), the himroo (a silk-and-cotton brocade of Aurangabad and Hyderabad), the tanchoi (a silk of Gujarat with figured motifs), the gaji (a silk of Surat), and the mashru (a silk-and-cotton fabric of Patan and Bharuch) were all part of the imperial textile repertoire.

The Turban: Pagri, Dastar, and the Styles of the Court

The turban was and elaborate elements of the Mughal male costume. The pagri (also called safa, dastar, or pagri) was the standard male head-dress, a long piece of fine muslin, silk, or brocade wound around a fitted cap (the kulah or kullay) in a variety of styles. The styles of the pagri varied considerably by region, religion, and rank: the amamah of the Shia tradition, the pagri of the Sunni tradition, the dastar of the Sikh tradition, the safa of the Rajput tradition, the pagri of the Jat tradition, the kullah of the Kashmiri Muslim tradition, and the pagri of the Maratha and Deccani traditions were all distinct. The imperial court of the Mughals favoured a relatively restrained style of pagri in white muslin or fine silk, the sarpech (the jewel-encrusted turban ornament) marking the rank of the wearer. The sarpech (also called jigha) was a brooch-like ornament fixed to the front of the pagri, typically set with diamonds, emeralds, rubies, and pearls, and was a particular mark of the emperor, the princes, and the great nobles.

The dastar of the Sikh tradition was a more substantial and elaborate turban, typically in a coloured cotton or silk, wound in a distinctive style that became one of the most recognisable marks of the Sikh identity. The Mughal court generally viewed the Sikh dastar with suspicion, particularly after the rise of the Khalsa under Guru Gobind Singh, and the wearing of the dastar was at various times restricted or persecuted. The pagri of the Rajput tradition, in particular the safa of the Sisodia, Rathor, and Kachhwaha courts, was a more elaborate and colourful style, and the safa of the Rajput nobility was a particular mark of the kshatriya martial identity.

Textiles: Muslin, Silk, Brocade, and the Imperial Karkhanas

The textile tradition of the Mughal period was one of the most sophisticated in the early modern world, and the karkhanas (workshops) of Lahore, Agra, Ahmedabad, Burhanpur, Dhaka, Murshidabad, Jaunpur, Varanasi, and the various provincial capitals produced fabrics of extraordinary refinement. The principal textile traditions of the empire included:

Muslin of Dhaka and the Eastern Regions

The muslin of Dhaka, the abrawan (“running water”), the shabnam (“morning dew”), the jamdani (the muslin with woven floral motifs), and the various other grades of fine muslin produced in the eastern regions of the empire were among the most prized textiles of the early modern world. The fine muslins of Dhaka were so delicate that they could be drawn through a finger ring, and the imperial wardrobe maintained substantial reserves of the finest abrawan and shabnam for the use of the emperor and the imperial women. The muslin of Dhaka was exported to Europe, West Asia, and Southeast Asia, and the dhaka (the more general term for the muslin of Dhaka) was a major element of the textile trade of the period.

Silk of the Western and Central Regions

The silk traditions of the empire included the paithani of Paithan, the himroo of Aurangabad and Hyderabad, the tanchoi of Gujarat, the gaji of Surat, the mashru of Patan and Bharuch, the baluchari of Bengal, the konchha of Varanasi, the amru of Assam, the patola of Patan in Gujarat, the kinkhwab of Lahore, and the khas of Burhanpur. The silk karkhanas of the imperial court, the daulat khana-i-khas of the emperor, and the workshops of the great nobles produced silks of extraordinary refinement, often woven with gold and silver thread, embellished with figured motifs, and reserved for the use of the imperial family and the highest nobility.

Brocade, Velvet, and the Imperial Workshops

The brocade tradition of the Mughal period was centred on Lahore, Ahmedabad, Burhanpur, and Varanasi. The kinkhwab (brocade with gold and silver thread), the zardozi (embroidery with gold and silver thread), the gota (gold and silver lace), the kamdani (brocade with figured motifs), the badla (brocade with silver thread), and the farsh-i-chandni (the famous silver-and-gold brocade of Burhanpur) were all part of the imperial textile repertoire. The imperial karkhanas of Lahore, Agra, and Ahmedabad produced brocades, velvets, and embroidered fabrics of extraordinary refinement, and the daulat khana-i-khas of the emperor maintained a substantial wardrobe of the finest brocades for the use of the imperial family.

Embroidery Traditions: Chikan, Phulkari, Kantha, and Zardozi

The embroidery traditions of the period were equally diverse. The chikan (white embroidery on fine muslin) of Lucknow, the phulkari (floral embroidery on coarse cotton) of the Punjab, the kantha (running stitch embroidery on layered cotton) of Bengal, the zardozi (gold embroidery on velvet and brocade) of the imperial court, the gota (gold lace work) of the Rajput courts, the suzani (chain stitch embroidery on cotton) of the Central Asian tradition, the ari (hook embroidery on silk) of the Kashmiri tradition, the abroz (a fine embroidery on muslin) of the Delhi tradition, and the resham (silk embroidery) of the various regional traditions were all part of the wider embroidery tradition of the empire.

Jewellery: The Mughal Kundan, Meenakari, and the Imperial Jewels

The jewellery tradition of the Mughal period was in the world. The Mughal kundan setting, the technique of setting precious stones in a foil of pure gold, was developed in the imperial court and became features of Indian jewellery. The meenakari (enamel work) of Jaipur, the thewa (goldwork on glass) of Pratapgarh, the minakari (enamel) of the imperial karkhanas, the jade carving of the imperial court, the agate and carnelian carving of Cambay and Ahmadnagar, the ivory carving of Murshidabad, the lacquer work of the Punjab hills, and the bidri (inlay work) of Bidar were all part of the wider decorative arts tradition of the period.

The principal pieces of the Mughal jewellery tradition included:

The sarpech (also jigha or kalgi), a jewel-encrusted ornament fixed to the front of the pagri, marking the rank of the wearer; the sarpech of the emperor and the great nobles was typically set with diamonds, emeralds, rubies, and pearls, and was a particular mark of imperial or noble status.
The bazuband (also bajuband), an armlet worn on the upper arm, often set with jewels, typically a mark of high rank or a particular honour conferred by the emperor.
The bala, a pendant worn on the left side of the head, often a single large pearl or a jewel-encrusted ornament; the bala was a particular mark of imperial or noble female rank.
The jhumar (also jhumka), a pendant earring, often a large and elaborate piece, typically set with pearls and jewels.
The hath phul (also hathpanja), a hand ornament covering the back of the hand, typically set with jewels, often worn by imperial women and the wives of the great nobles.
The panja, a hand ornament in the form of a five-pointed star or a hand, often set with jewels, a particular mark of imperial or noble status.
The haar (also mala), a long necklace, often of pearls or jewels, typically worn over the shoulders and falling to the chest.
The kanthi (also guluband), a choker or short necklace, often of pearls or gold, fitting closely around the neck.
The tah-mala (also tik-mala or sar-tasnim), a pendant worn at the throat, often a single large jewel, particularly a sapphire or an emerald.
The ring (also angushtar), a finger ring, often set with a single large stone, typically a diamond, an emerald, or a ruby, often engraved with the name of the wearer or with a religious inscription.

The principal sources of the imperial jewels included the diamonds of Golconda (including the Kohinoor and the Darya-ye Noor, both of which entered the Persian court and later the British crown jewels), the emeralds of Colombia (which reached India via the Portuguese and the Spanish trade with the New World, often cut in the mughal style of intricate, multi-faceted cutting), the rubies of Burma (the pigeon-blood rubies of Mogok), the sapphires of Sri Lanka (the padparadscha sapphires of the island), the pearls of Basra and the Persian Gulf (the famous basra pearls of the imperial treasury), the jade of Burma and Khotan (the jade of the imperial karkhanas), the agate and carnelian of Cambay (the aqiq of the imperial court), and the amber of the Baltic (which reached India through the European trading companies).

Court Ceremonial: The Wardrobe of the Emperor, the Harem, and the Nobles

The wardrobe of the emperor, the daulat khana-i-khas (the imperial treasury), and the farrash khana (the imperial wardrobe) were major institutions of the imperial court. The emperor’s wardrobe was a substantial establishment, maintained by a mir farrash (master of the wardrobe) and a substantial staff, and it was replenished at regular intervals by the karkhanas of the imperial household and by the nazar (gift-offerings) of the great nobles, the Rajput rulers, and the foreign embassies. The emperor’s wardrobe included a substantial collection of jamas of different colours, fabrics, and ornamentation, a collection of patkas and doshala of the finest muslin, silk, and brocade, a collection of pagris of different styles and materials, and a substantial collection of jewels, including the sarpech, the bazuband, the kamarband, the qaddi (belt), and the various other ornaments of the imperial dress.

The wardrobe of the imperial harem, the zenana, was similarly elaborate. The mahal (the principal wife) of the emperor, the wives and concubines of the zenana, the daughters of the imperial family, and the female attendants of the household all maintained substantial wardrobes of fine muslin, silk, brocade, and embroidered fabrics, and the daulat khana-i-zenana (the imperial treasury for the women’s quarters) was a major establishment. The malkia (queen) and the senior wives of the emperor maintained substantial collections of jewels, and the tah-mala, the bala, the jhumar, the haar, the kamarband, and the hath phul were all standard elements of the imperial female wardrobe.

The wardrobe of the nobility followed the imperial model but at a more modest scale. The umara (great nobles) of the highest mansabs maintained substantial establishments of the imperial household, including a farrash khana of their own, and the sar-o-pa (the head-to-foot dress of honour conferred by the emperor on the occasion of a particular honour) was a recognised element of the imperial ceremonial. The sarpech, the bazuband, the kamarband, the qaddi, and the various other ornaments of the formal court dress were all marks of the rank of the noble, and the elaborate conventions of court dress were a major element of the adab (etiquette) of the imperial court.

Regional Variations and the Influence of European and Persian Fashion

The Mughal costume tradition was not monolithic. The various provincial courts, the regional elites, and the religious and caste communities maintained their own distinctive costume traditions, and the wider court fashion absorbed influences from a number of sources.

The Rajput costume tradition, centred on the courts of Mewar, Marwar, and Amber-Jaipur, was characterised by the use of brighter colours, the elaborate safa turban, the jama and peshwaz of the regional elite, the kamarband of the Rajput warrior, and the use of the kundan and meenakari jewellery of the regional courts. The Maratha costume tradition, centred on the courts of Satara, Pune, and Kolhapur, was characterised by the dhoti and angarkha of the Maharashtrian male costume, the lugda and sari of the female costume, the pheta (turban) of the male head-dress, and the kolhapuri saaj and nath (nose ring) of the female jewellery. The Sikh costume tradition, centred on the courts of Maharaja Ranjit Singh and the Khalsa, was characterised by the chola (long coat), the kamarband (waist sash), the kulah (turban), the kirpan (dagger), and the kachh (short breeches) of the Khalsa. The Deccani costume tradition, centred on the courts of Hyderabad, Golconda, and Bijapur, was characterised by the pashmina and the khas shawl, the peshwaz and farangi of the court costume, the shalwar and kurti of the female costume, and the use of the paithani silk and the bidri work of the regional tradition.

The Mughal court also absorbed influences from Persian, Central Asian, and European fashion. The Persian influence was the most pervasive, given the Persianate cultural orientation of the court, and the qaba, the jama, the patka, the pagri, and the qaddi of the imperial wardrobe all reflect the Persian conventions of the Timurid and Safavid courts. The Central Asian influence was visible in the use of the manta (a particular form of the pagri), the chapan (a particular form of the overcoat), and the karakul (a particular form of the lambskin hat) of the Turko-Mongol tradition. The European influence, transmitted through the Jesuit missions and the European trading companies, was visible in the adoption of the farangi (a European-inspired coat), the farrangi topi (a European-style hat), the narma (a European-style waistcoat), and the European wig and sword of the late Mughal court.

The Legacy of Mughal Costume in Modern South Asia

The influence of Mughal costume on the modern dress of India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, and the wider South Asian diaspora is profound. The jodhpuri and bandhgala coats of modern Indian formal wear, the achkan and sherwani of the North Indian formal male costume, the kurta-pajama and pathani of the North Indian informal male costume, the sherwani and nehru jacket of the South Asian political and ceremonial dress, the lehenga-choli and sharara of the modern Indian bridal costume, the sari of the Indian and Bangladeshi female costume, the salwar kameez and shalwar kameez of the modern Pakistani and North Indian female costume, the gharara of the Lucknow tradition, the churidar of the North Indian female costume, the dupatta of the modern female head-cover, the pashmina shawl of the Kashmiri and modern South Asian formal wear, the kundan and meenakari jewellery of the modern Indian bridal tradition, the maang tikka and nath of the modern Indian female ornament, the jhumka of the modern Indian earring, the kadas of the modern Indian bangle, and the payal of the modern Indian anklet are all, in different ways, parts of the wider Mughal costume inheritance.

The modern Mughal style of formal wear, centred on the sherwani and the achkan for men and the lehenga and the anarkali for women, remains the most prestigious ceremonial dress of the South Asian formal wardrobe, and the imperial conventions of the Mughal court continue to shape the aesthetic of formal wear in the wider region. The Kohinoor diamond, the Darya-ye Noor diamond, the Timur Ruby, the Sahih (a famous Mughal-era emerald), and various other pieces of the imperial jewellery have entered the modern public collections of the subcontinent, and they remain potent symbols of the Mughal cultural inheritance.

Sources

Ruby Lal, Domesticity and Power in the Early Mughal World (2005), ch. 1.
Catherine B. Asher and Cynthia Talbot, India Before Europe (Cambridge University Press, 2006), ch. 5.

For the broader context of Mughal cultural life, see the Mughal culture overview. The textiles of the imperial karkhanas were closely related to the broader trade of the empire, treated on the Mughal administration overview. The artistic conventions that shaped the textile and costume traditions are examined on the Mughal art and miniature painting page. The court ceremonial in which the costume tradition was deployed, including the durbar, the jharokha-i-darshan, and the various court festivals, is treated on the Mughal festivals and entertainment page. The jharokha-i-darshan itself, the ceremonial appearance of the emperor from the palace window, is ceremonial elements of the court. The daulat khana-i-khas and the imperial treasury, which maintained the wardrobe and the jewels of the emperor, are treated in the entries on Akbar and Shah Jahan, under whose reigns the imperial treasure was at its peak.