Mughal Jewelry

The jewelry tradition of the Mughal court was and most distinctive in the early modern world, and it occupies a central place in the cultural and material history of the empire. The Mughal kundan setting, the technique of setting precious stones in a foil of pure gold, was developed in the imperial court and became features of Indian jewelry. The meenakari (enamel work), the thewa (goldwork on glass), the jade carving, the agate and carnelian carving, the ivory carving, the lacquer work, and the bidri (inlay work) of the imperial karkhanas were all major elements of the wider decorative arts tradition of the period. The principal personal ornaments of the imperial wardrobe — the sarpech headdress, the bazuband armlet, the bala and jhumar hair ornaments, the hath phul hand ornament, the haar necklace, the kanthi choker, the tah-mala pendant, the ring, the kadas bangles, and the payal anklets — were major elements of the formal court costume of the emperor, the princes, the great nobles, and the imperial women. The history of the Mughal jewelry tradition, the materials of the imperial karkhanas, the famous pieces of the imperial treasury, the personal ornaments of the emperor and the nobility, the role of the jewelers and the workshops, the symbolic significance of the jewelry, the trade in precious stones with the Mughals, and the legacy of the Mughal jewelry tradition in the modern period are treated in detail below.

The Materials: Gold, Silver, Diamonds, Rubies, Emeralds, and Pearls

The principal materials of the Mughal jewelry tradition included gold, silver, diamonds, rubies, emeralds, pearls, sapphires, jade, agate, carnelian, ivory, amber, and the various other materials of the wider decorative arts tradition. The gold of the imperial jewelry was typically of the highest purity, and the kundan technique used a foil of pure gold to set the precious stones. The silver of the imperial jewelry was used for the bidri work of Bidar, for the koftgari (gold and silver wire inlay) of the imperial court, and for the various silver ornaments of the wider tradition. The diamonds of the imperial jewelry were drawn principally from the Golconda region, the principal diamond-mining region of the Indian subcontinent, and the Golconda diamonds were the most prized in the imperial treasury. The rubies of the imperial jewelry were drawn from Burma (the pigeon-blood rubies of Mogok), from Badakhshan (the ruby mines of the Hindu Kush), and from Sri Lanka (the padparadscha rubies of the island). The emeralds of the imperial jewelry were drawn from Colombia (the emerald mines of the New World, which reached India via the Portuguese and the Spanish trade with the Americas), and the Colombian emeralds were the most prized in the imperial treasury. The pearls of the imperial jewelry were drawn from the Persian Gulf (the basra pearls of the imperial treasury), from Sri Lanka (the gulf of mannar pearls), and from the Bahrain region.

The Mughal jewelry tradition was therefore sustained by a substantial trade in precious stones and metals from across the world. The Golconda diamonds reached the Mughal court from the south, the Burmese rubies reached the court from the east, the Colombian emeralds reached the court from the Portuguese and Spanish trade, the Persian Gulf pearls reached the court from the west, the Sri Lankan sapphires reached the court from the south, the Khmer rubies reached the court from Southeast Asia, and the Chinese silk and European cloth reached the court through the overland and maritime trade routes. The Mughal imperial treasury, the daulat khana-i-khas, was therefore one of the principal repositories of the world’s precious stones and metals, and the jewelry of the imperial court was among the most varied and most valuable in the world.

The Famous Pieces: The Koh-i-Noor, the Timur Ruby, the Peacock Throne

The Mughal imperial treasury contained a number of famous pieces of jewelry that have entered the wider cultural memory of South Asia and the world. The most famous of these are the Koh-i-Noor diamond, the Timur Ruby, the Darya-ye-Noor diamond, the Peacock Throne, the Nadir Shah’s throne, the various aigrette and sarpech of the imperial court, the tah-mala of the imperial women, the kamarband of the imperial court, the qaddi (belt) of the imperial court, and a substantial body of other famous pieces.

The Koh-i-Noor (“Mountain of Light”) is diamonds in the world. The Koh-i-Noor is a 105-carat (originally 186-carat) diamond, the largest diamond in the world at the time of its finding, and it has a long and complex history that has been the subject of substantial scholarly and popular attention. The Koh-i-Noor was owned by various rulers of South Asia, including the rulers of the Kakatiya dynasty, the rulers of the Bahmani and Vijayanagara sultanates, the Mughal emperors, the Nizams of Hyderabad, the Sikh rulers of the Punjab, the East India Company, and the British Crown. The diamond is now in the Crown of Queen Mary (and later in the Crown of Queen Elizabeth), part of the British Crown Jewels, and it remains diamonds in the world.

The Timur Ruby is rubies in the world. The Timur Ruby is a 361-carat ruby, one of the largest in the world, and it has a long and complex history that has been the subject of substantial scholarly and popular attention. The Timur Ruby was owned by various rulers of South and Central Asia, including the rulers of the Timurid dynasty, the rulers of the Mughal Empire, the rulers of the Safavid Empire, the rulers of the Durrani Empire, the rulers of the Sikh Empire, the East India Company, and the British Crown. The ruby is now in the British Crown Jewels, and it remains rubies in the world.

The Peacock Throne (Takht-i-Taus) is thrones in the world. The Peacock Throne was commissioned by Shah Jahan in the 1630s, and it was the principal throne of the Mughal emperors from the reign of Shah Jahan to the reign of Muhammad Shah. The throne was named for the two peacocks that stood behind the throne, with tails made of sapphires, emeralds, rubies, and diamonds, and it was a major element of the imperial ceremonial of the Mughal court. The Peacock Throne was looted by Nadir Shah of Persia in 1739, and the parts of the throne were carried to Persia, where they were eventually incorporated into the Persian Crown Jewels. The Peacock Throne is thrones in the world, and it has been the subject of substantial scholarly and popular attention.

The Darya-ye-Noor (“Sea of Light”) is diamonds in the world. The Darya-ye-Noor is a 60-carat diamond, one of the largest in the world, and it is part of the Persian Crown Jewels, having been carried to Persia by Nadir Shah in 1739. The diamond is now in the National Treasury of Iran, and it remains diamonds in the world.

The Personal Ornaments of the Emperor and the Nobility

The principal personal ornaments of the Mughal court included:

The sarpech (also jigha or kalgi), a jewel-encrusted ornament fixed to the front of the pagri (turban), marking the rank of the wearer. The sarpech of the emperor and the great nobles was typically set with diamonds, emeralds, rubies, and pearls, and it was a particular mark of imperial or noble status. The sarpech of the emperor often featured the Koh-i-Noor or another famous diamond, and the sarpech of the great nobles typically featured substantial diamonds, emeralds, or rubies.
The bazuband (also bajuband), an armlet worn on the upper arm, often set with jewels, typically a mark of high rank or a particular honour conferred by the emperor. The bazuband of the emperor and the great nobles was typically a substantial ornament, set with diamonds, emeralds, rubies, and pearls, and it was a particular mark of imperial or noble status.
The bala, a pendant worn on the left side of the head, often a single large pearl or a jewel-encrusted ornament. The bala was a particular mark of imperial or noble female rank, and the bala of the imperial women was typically a substantial ornament, set with diamonds, emeralds, rubies, and pearls.
The jhumar (also jhumka), a pendant earring, often a large and elaborate piece, typically set with pearls and jewels. The jhumar of the imperial women was typically a substantial ornament, set with diamonds, emeralds, rubies, and pearls, and it was a particular mark of imperial or noble female rank.
The hath phul (also hathpanja), a hand ornament covering the back of the hand, typically set with jewels. The hath phul of the imperial women was typically a substantial ornament, set with diamonds, emeralds, rubies, and pearls, and it was a particular mark of imperial or noble female rank.
The panja, a hand ornament in the form of a five-pointed star or a hand, often set with jewels, a particular mark of imperial or noble status.
The haar (also mala), a long necklace, often of pearls or jewels, typically worn over the shoulders and falling to the chest. The haar of the imperial women was typically a substantial ornament, often consisting of multiple strands of pearls, diamonds, emeralds, rubies, and other precious stones.
The kanthi (also guluband), a choker or short necklace, often of pearls or gold, fitting closely around the neck. The kanthi of the imperial women was typically a substantial ornament, often set with diamonds, emeralds, or rubies.
The tah-mala (also tik-mala or sar-tasnim), a pendant worn at the throat, often a single large jewel, particularly a sapphire or an emerald. The tah-mala of the imperial women was typically a substantial ornament, set with a large diamond, emerald, or sapphire, often surrounded by smaller diamonds or pearls.
The ring (also angushtar), a finger ring, often set with a single large stone, typically a diamond, an emerald, or a ruby, often engraved with the name of the wearer or with a religious inscription. The ring of the emperor typically featured the imperial seal or a religious inscription, and the rings of the great nobles typically featured personal inscriptions or personal seals.

The Kundan Setting, the Meenakari, and the Imperial Karkhanas

The Mughal jewelry tradition was produced in the imperial karkhanas, the workshops of the imperial household, and the principal techniques of the imperial jewelry tradition included the kundan setting, the meenakari (enamel work), the thewa (goldwork on glass), the jade carving, the agate and carnelian carving, the ivory carving, the lacquer work, the bidri (inlay work), and the various other techniques of the wider decorative arts tradition.

The kundan setting, the technique of setting precious stones in a foil of pure gold, was developed in the imperial court and became features of Indian jewelry. The kundan technique allowed the precious stones to be set in elaborate designs, and the kundan of the imperial court was typically of the highest quality. The kundan setting was used in the principal personal ornaments of the imperial wardrobe, including the sarpech, the bazuband, the haar, the kanthi, the tah-mala, and the ring. The kundan technique was transmitted from the imperial karkhanas to the regional courts, and the kundan tradition of Jaipur, the kundan tradition of Delhi, the kundan tradition of Lucknow, and the kundan tradition of Hyderabad all developed in dialogue with the imperial tradition.

The meenakari (also minakari or enamel work) of the imperial court was a major element of the wider decorative arts tradition. The meenakari technique involved the use of coloured enamels, typically of the champlevé or cloisonné tradition, to ornament the kundan settings and the mohrakashi (gold repoussé) work of the imperial court. The meenakari of the imperial court was typically of the highest quality, and the meenakari of Jaipur, the meenakari of Delhi, the meenakari of Lucknow, and the meenakari of Hyderabad all developed in dialogue with the imperial tradition.

The jade carving of the imperial court was a major element of the wider decorative arts tradition. The jade of the imperial court was typically drawn from Burma and from the Khotan region of Central Asia, and the jade carving of the imperial court was typically of the highest quality. The jade hilts of daggers, the jade handles of swords, the jade cups, the jade bowls, the jade plates, and the various other jade pieces of the imperial karkhanas were major elements of the wider decorative arts tradition.

The agate and carnelian carving of the imperial court was a major element of the wider decorative arts tradition. The agate and carnelian of the imperial court was typically drawn from the Cambay region of Gujarat and the Ahmadnagar region of the Deccan, and the agate and carnelian carving of the imperial court was typically of the highest quality. The aqiq (carnelian) seals, the agate cups, the agate bowls, the agate plates, and the various other agate and carnelian pieces of the imperial karkhanas were major elements of the wider decorative arts tradition.

The Symbolic Significance of Mughal Jewelry

The jewelry of the Mughal court was not merely a luxury good; it was a major element of the imperial ideology and a major symbol of the imperial authority. The personal ornaments of the emperor — the sarpech, the bazuband, the haar, the kamarband, the qaddi, the tah-mala, and the various other pieces of the imperial wardrobe — were not merely personal ornaments; they were major elements of the imperial ceremonial, and the conferring of khil’at (dress of honour) on the principal nobles of the empire typically included the conferring of personal ornaments, the sar-o-pa (head-to-foot dress of honour), as a particular mark of the imperial favour.

The jewelry of the Mughal court was also a major element of the diplomatic gift-giving tradition of the period. The Mughal emperors regularly sent gifts of personal ornaments, the khil’at of the principal nobles, to the regional rulers, the foreign embassies, the ulama, the mashayikh, and the various other recipients of the imperial favour. The diplomatic gifts of the Mughal court were a major element of the wider gift-giving tradition of the early modern Islamic world, and the sarpech, the bazuband, the haar, the kamarband, the qaddi, the tah-mala, the kinkhwab (brocade), the jama, the pagri, and the various other items of the imperial gift were major elements of the wider diplomatic gift-giving tradition.

The jewelry of the Mughal court was also a major element of the personal religious life of the emperor and the principal nobles. The emperor and the principal nobles regularly made personal pilgrimages to the Sufi shrines, the Hindu temples, the Jain temples, and the various other religious establishments of the empire, and the personal offerings of jewelry at these establishments were a major element of the personal religious life of the period. The mujassam (figural ornaments) of the Hindu tradition, the tah-zakir (amulet boxes) of the Islamic tradition, the parshuram (trident) of the Shaiva tradition, the chhatri (umbrella) of the Vaishnava tradition, and the various other religious ornaments of the imperial court were major elements of the personal religious life of the period.

The Trade in Precious Stones with the Mughals

The Mughal jewelry tradition was sustained by a substantial trade in precious stones and metals from across the world. The principal sources of the precious stones of the imperial treasury were the Golconda region of South India (diamonds), the Burmese mines of Mogok (rubies), the Colombian mines of the New World (emeralds, reached via the Portuguese and Spanish trade), the Sri Lankan mines of the island (sapphires and rubies), the Persian Gulf pearl banks (pearls), the Khmer mines of Southeast Asia (rubies), the Badakhshan mines of the Hindu Kush (rubies and lapis lazuli), and the various other sources of the world’s precious stones.

The trade in precious stones with the Mughals was a major element of the wider trade of the early modern world. The Portuguese were the principal European traders with the Mughal court, and the Portuguese trade in Colombian emeralds, Burmese rubies, Persian Gulf pearls, and the various other precious stones of the world was a major element of the Portuguese imperial system. The English East India Company and the Dutch VOC were also major traders in precious stones with the Mughal court, and the European trade in Indian diamonds, Indian pearls, and the various other precious stones of the Indian subcontinent was a major element of the European trade with the Mughals. The Central Asian and Persian traders were also major suppliers of precious stones to the Mughal court, and the Central Asian trade in Badakhshan rubies, the Persian trade in Persian Gulf pearls, and the various other Central Asian and Persian trades in precious stones were major elements of the wider trade with the Mughals.

The Legacy of Mughal Jewelry in Modern South Asia

The Mughal jewelry tradition remains central to the modern jewelry tradition of India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, and the wider South Asian diaspora. The kundan setting, the meenakari enamel work, the thewa goldwork, the jade carving, the agate and carnelian carving, the ivory carving, the lacquer work, and the bidri inlay work of the imperial karkhanas remain major elements of the modern jewelry tradition. The kundan of Jaipur, the meenakari of Jaipur, the thewa of Pratapgarh, the jade of the imperial karkhanas, the agate of Cambay, the carnelian of Cambay, the ivory of Murshidabad, the lacquer of the Punjab hills, and the bidri of Bidar all remain major elements of the modern jewelry tradition of the subcontinent.

The personal ornaments of the Mughal court remain central to the modern jewelry tradition of the region. The sarpech of the imperial court, the bazuband of the imperial court, the haar of the imperial court, the kamarband of the imperial court, the qaddi of the imperial court, the tah-mala of the imperial court, the bala of the imperial court, the jhumar of the imperial court, the hath phul of the imperial court, the panja of the imperial court, the kanthi of the imperial court, the kadas of the imperial court, the payal of the imperial court, and the angushtar of the imperial court all remain major elements of the modern jewelry tradition of the region.

The famous pieces of the Mughal imperial treasury — the Koh-i-Noor diamond, the Darya-ye-Noor diamond, the Timur Ruby, the Shah diamond, the Sahih emerald, the Jahangir emerald, the Akbar Shah diamond, the Mir Jumla diamond, and a substantial body of other famous pieces of the imperial jewelry — have entered the wider cultural memory of South Asia and the world, and they remain potent symbols of the Mughal cultural inheritance. The Koh-i-Noor diamond, the Darya-ye-Noor diamond, and the Timur Ruby are now in the British Crown Jewels, and they remain major elements of the cultural memory of the South Asian diaspora.

Sources

Susan Stronge, The Arts of the Sikh Kingdoms (1999), ch. on jewellery.
The V&A Museum and the Salar Jung Museum catalogues of Mughal jewellery.

For the broader context of the costume and personal adornment tradition, see the Mughal costumes and personal adornment page. The textile tradition that supported the jewelry tradition, including the brocade, muslin, and silk of the imperial karkhanas, is treated in Mughal textiles. The imperial karkhanas of the imperial household, which produced the jewelry of the imperial court, are treated in the Mughal administration overview and in the entries on Akbar and Shah Jahan, under whose reigns the imperial jewelry tradition was at its peak. The festival context in which the jewelry of the imperial court was deployed is treated on the Mughal festivals and entertainment page. The painting tradition of the imperial atelier, which often depicted the jewelry of the imperial court, is treated on the Mughal art and miniature painting page. The trade in precious stones with the Mughals is treated in the Mughal administration overview.