Mughal Cuisine Techniques

The cooking techniques of the Mughal court are among the most distinctive and most influential in the culinary history of South Asia, and many of the techniques developed or refined in the imperial kitchen — the dum pukht (slow cooking in a sealed pot), the tandoor (cylindrical clay oven) cookery, the use of whole and ground spices, the use of ghee (clarified butter), the use of dahi (yogurt), the use of saffron and rose water, the bhunao (sautéing and reduction), the taar (skewer) cookery, the kofta (meatball) technique, the biryani layering, and the mithai ornamentation — have become foundational to the cookery of North India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, and the wider South Asian diaspora. The history of these techniques, the institutional setting of the imperial bawarchi khana, the principal techniques of the imperial kitchen, the regional variations of the techniques, the equipment of the imperial bawarchi khana, and the preservation of the techniques in the modern South Asian cuisine are treated in detail below.

The Dum Pukht Method: Slow Cooking in a Sealed Pot

The dum pukht (literally “breath of the sealed pot”) is techniques of the Mughal kitchen, and it is closely associated with the Mughlai cuisine of the imperial period. The dum pukht technique involves the slow cooking of food in a heavy pot, typically a handi or a deg, sealed with a tight lid, often with a paste of wheat flour and water around the rim, and cooked over a low fire or covered with hot charcoal so that the food cooks in its own steam and the flavours mingle. The dum pukht technique is particularly associated with the biryani, the korma, the kofta, the pulao, the qorma, the boti kebab, the dum aloo, and the various other dishes of the imperial kitchen that depend on the slow cooking of meat, rice, or vegetables in a sealed pot.

The historical origins of the dum pukht technique are debated. The technique itself has deep roots in the South Asian cooking tradition, and the dum cookery of the Indian subcontinent predates the Mughal period. The Mughals, however, are credited with the refinement of the dum pukht technique and its incorporation into the imperial cuisine, and the dum pukht of the Mughal period is a major element of the Mughlai cookery of the imperial kitchen. The dum pukht technique of the Mughal period is particularly associated with the biryani of the Awadhi tradition, the korma of the Lucknowi tradition, the kofta of the Hyderabadi tradition, the dum aloo of the Kashmiri tradition, and the various other regional adaptations of the technique.

The dum pukht technique has a number of distinct advantages. The slow cooking in a sealed pot allows the flavours of the various ingredients to mingle and develop, and the sealed pot allows the steam to be retained so that the food is cooked in its own juices. The technique is particularly suited to the cooking of meat dishes, since the slow cooking in a sealed pot allows the connective tissue of the meat to break down and the meat to become tender. The technique is also suited to the cooking of rice dishes, since the slow cooking in a sealed pot allows the rice to absorb the juices of the meat and the flavours of the spices. The dum pukht technique is therefore and most versatile techniques of the Mughal kitchen, and it has become a foundational technique of the Mughlai cookery of the South Asian region.

The Tandoor: Cylindrical Clay Oven Cookery

The tandoor (literally “clay oven”) is a cylindrical clay oven introduced to the Indian subcontinent from Central Asia, and it has become features of the South Asian cookery. The tandoor is a cylindrical clay oven, typically sunk into the ground, with a charcoal or wood fire at the bottom. The tandoor is used for the cooking of naan, kulcha, sheermal, tandoori roti, boti kebab, tandoori chicken, seekh kebab, and the various other tandoor dishes of the South Asian kitchen. The tandoor cookery of the South Asian kitchen is of the regional cooking traditions, and it is one of the major contributions of the Mughal period to the wider South Asian cookery.

The tandoor of the Mughal period was a major institution of the imperial kitchen, and the nanbais (bread-makers) of the imperial bawarchi khana were major figures of the imperial household. The tandoor of the imperial kitchen was used for the cooking of naan, kulcha, sheermal, tandoori roti, and the various other breads of the imperial kitchen, and the tandoor of the imperial kitchen was also used for the cooking of the tandoori meat dishes of the imperial household. The tandoor of the Mughal period was a substantial institution, and the mir tandoor (master of the tandoor) was an important office of the imperial household.

The tandoor cookery of the Mughal period was characterised by a number of distinct techniques. The tandoor of the Mughal period was typically a cylindrical clay oven, sunk into the ground, with a charcoal or wood fire at the bottom. The bread of the tandoor was typically slapped against the inside walls of the oven, where it cooked rapidly in the high heat of the fire. The meat of the tandoor was typically marinated in yogurt and spices, threaded on skewers, and cooked in the high heat of the oven. The tandoor of the Mughal period was a substantial institution, and the tandoor cookery of the imperial kitchen was one of the major contributions of the Mughal period to the wider South Asian cookery.

The Use of Spices and Aromatics

The Mughal kitchen used an extensive and carefully graded range of spices and aromatics, many of them imported through the great ports of Gujarat and the Malabar. The Ain-i-Akbari of Abu’l Fazl contains a detailed discussion of the spices in use in the imperial kitchen, including the relative prices, the regional sources, and the culinary uses of each. The principal spices of the Mughal kitchen included black pepper (from the Malabar), cardamom (from the Western Ghats), cinnamon (from Sri Lanka), cloves (from the Moluccas), nutmeg and mace (from the East Indies), ginger and turmeric (from the eastern and southern regions), cumin and coriander (from the western drylands), saffron (from Kashmir), and the various other spices of the imperial kitchen. The Mughal kitchen also made extensive use of ghee (clarified butter), kewra water (an extract of the Pandanus flower), rose water, kesar (saffron), elaichi (cardamom), jaiphal and javitri (nutmeg and mace), and the various other aromatics of the imperial kitchen.

The use of spices and aromatics in the Mughal kitchen was a major element of the imperial cuisine, and the careful balance of spices and aromatics was a particular skill of the bawarchis of the imperial kitchen. The Mughal kitchen was characterised by the careful use of whole and ground spices, the careful balancing of the garam masala complex of cardamom, cinnamon, clove, cumin, coriander, and black pepper, the use of kewra and rose water, the use of saffron, the use of amchur (dried mango powder) and anardana (pomegranate seeds) for souring, the use of tamarind and imli (tamarind) for souring, the use of haldi (turmeric) for colour, and the use of the various other spices and aromatics of the imperial kitchen.

The Mughal preference for a particular kind of refined, aromatic, and moderately spiced flavour is reflected in the surviving manuals of the imperial kitchen. The korma and the biryani of the imperial kitchen were carefully balanced to bring out the flavour of the meat and the rice without overwhelming the palate with heat. The sweets of the imperial kitchen relied on a combination of sugar, honey, dried fruits, nuts, and floral aromatics. Even the kebabs of the imperial kitchen, while seasoned with a range of spices, were typically more aromatic than fiery, distinguishing the Mughal style from the hotter cuisines of the South and the East.

The Use of Ghee, Yogurt, Saffron, and Rose Water

The use of ghee (clarified butter) was a major element of the Mughal kitchen, and the ghee of the imperial kitchen was typically of the highest quality. The ghee of the Mughal period was prepared from the milk of the cows, buffaloes, and other dairy animals of the imperial farms, and the ghee of the imperial kitchen was typically clarified in the ghee-khana of the imperial household. The ghee of the Mughal kitchen was used for the cooking of the biryani, the korma, the kofta, the pulao, the halwa, the mithai, the dal, the sabzi, the roti, and the various other dishes of the imperial kitchen, and the ghee of the imperial kitchen was also used for the tadka (tempering) of the various dishes of the imperial kitchen.

The use of dahi (yogurt) was another major element of the Mughal kitchen, and the dahi of the imperial kitchen was typically of the highest quality. The dahi of the Mughal period was prepared from the milk of the cows, buffaloes, and other dairy animals of the imperial farms, and the dahi of the imperial kitchen was typically prepared in the dahi-khana of the imperial household. The dahi of the Mughal kitchen was used for the marination of meat, the tenderising of meat, the cooking of the korma, the cooking of the raita, the preparation of the lassi, the preparation of the chaas (buttermilk), the preparation of the kadhi, and the various other preparations of the imperial kitchen.

The use of saffron (kesar) was a major element of the Mughal kitchen, and the saffron of the imperial kitchen was typically drawn from the saffron-producing regions of the empire, particularly Kashmir. The saffron of the Mughal period was used for the colouring of the biryani, the colouring of the pulao, the colouring of the korma, the colouring of the halwa, the colouring of the kheer, the colouring of the mithai, and the various other preparations of the imperial kitchen, and the saffron of the imperial kitchen was also used for the kesar milk, the kesar sharbat, and the various other kesar preparations of the imperial household.

The use of rose water (gulab jal) was a major element of the Mughal kitchen, and the rose water of the imperial kitchen was typically of the highest quality. The rose water of the Mughal period was prepared from the roses of the imperial gardens, particularly the gulab of the bagh (garden) of the imperial palace, and the rose water of the imperial kitchen was typically prepared in the attar-khana (perfumery) of the imperial household. The rose water of the Mughal kitchen was used for the flavouring of the biryani, the flavouring of the korma, the flavouring of the kofta, the flavouring of the halwa, the flavouring of the kheer, the flavouring of the mithai, the flavouring of the gulab jamun, the flavouring of the jalebi, the flavouring of the sharbat, and the various other preparations of the imperial kitchen, and the rose water of the imperial kitchen was also used for the gulab sharbat, the gulab sherbet, and the various other gulab preparations of the imperial household.

The Bawarchi Khana: The Imperial Kitchen Organization

The bawarchi khana (literally “cooking place”), the imperial kitchen, was a major institution of the Mughal court, and it was kitchen establishments of the early modern world. The bawarchi khana of the imperial household was typically divided into a number of specialised sections, each responsible for a different category of food: the gosht-khana (meat section), the mithai-khana (sweets section), the halwai-khana (confectionery section), the roti-khana (bread section), the biriyani-khana (rice section), the shorba-khana (soup section), the sharbati-khana (beverage section), the bhojan-khana (vegetarian section), the kitchen of the imperial zenana (women’s quarters), and the various other specialised sections of the imperial household.

The personnel of the imperial bawarchi khana were ranked according to a formal hierarchy. The mir bakawal (master of the kitchen) stood at the head of the establishment; under him served the bawarchis (master cooks), the rakabdars (stewards who tasted each dish before service), the halwais (confectioners), the nanbais (bread-makers), the bhandaris (storekeepers), the mir tandoor (master of the tandoor), the mir biriyani (master of the biryani), the mir shorba (master of the shorba), the mir sharbat (master of the sharbat), and a long tail of assistants, porters, water-carriers, charcoal-burners, and other workers of the imperial kitchen.

The imperial bawarchi khana was supplied by an extensive apparatus of provisioning. The imperial hunts provided game, the imperial shikargarh gardens and the seris (imperial farms) provided fruits, vegetables, and dairy, and a network of imperial mandis (markets) and the kar-khanas of the imperial household supplied spices, condiments, oil, ghee, and other staples from across the empire. The standing of a noble at court could be measured, in part, by the quality of his kitchen, and several of the great nobles — including Asaf Khan, the father of Mumtaz Mahal, and the Nawab of Awadh — maintained establishments almost comparable in scale to that of the emperor himself.

The Equipment: Handi, Patila, Deg, Tawa, and Tandoor

The principal equipment of the Mughal kitchen included the handi (a heavy, deep cooking pot, typically of brass, copper, or earthenware, used for the slow cooking of meat, rice, and vegetables), the patila (a shallow cooking pot, typically of brass or copper, used for the cooking of the korma, the halwa, and the mithai), the deg (a large cooking pot, typically of copper, used for the cooking of the biryani, the pulao, and the qorma), the tawa (a flat, circular cooking surface, typically of iron, used for the cooking of the roti, the paratha, and the chapati), the tandoor (a cylindrical clay oven, sunk into the ground, used for the cooking of the naan, the kulcha, the sheermal, the tandoori roti, the boti kebab, the tandoori chicken, and the seekh kebab), the belan (a rolling pin, used for the rolling of the roti and the paratha), the chakla (a flat wooden board, used for the rolling of the roti and the paratha), the sieve (a fine mesh strainer, used for the straining of the ghee, the shorba, and the sharbat), the mortar and pestle (used for the grinding of the spices), the grinder (used for the grinding of the spices and the pastes), the knife (used for the cutting of the meat, the vegetables, and the spices), the cutting board (used for the cutting of the meat, the vegetables, and the spices), the spoon (used for the stirring of the korma, the halwa, and the mithai), the ladle (used for the serving of the biryani, the pulao, the korma, and the shorba), the skewer (used for the tandoor and the kebab cookery), and the various other equipment of the imperial kitchen.

The handi of the Mughal kitchen was a particularly important piece of equipment, and the handi of the imperial bawarchi khana was typically a substantial piece of equipment. The handi of the Mughal period was typically of brass, copper, or earthenware, and it was used for the slow cooking of the dum pukht technique. The handi of the Mughal period was typically a heavy pot with a tight-fitting lid, and the handi of the Mughal period was typically sealed with a paste of wheat flour and water around the rim to prevent the steam from escaping.

The tandoor of the Mughal kitchen was another particularly important piece of equipment, and the tandoor of the imperial bawarchi khana was typically a substantial piece of equipment. The tandoor of the Mughal period was typically a cylindrical clay oven, sunk into the ground, with a charcoal or wood fire at the bottom, and it was used for the cooking of the naan, the kulcha, the sheermal, the tandoori roti, the boti kebab, the tandoori chicken, the seekh kebab, and the various other tandoor dishes of the imperial kitchen.

The Regional Variations of the Techniques

The techniques of the Mughal kitchen were carried to the four corners of the empire through the households of the mansabdari nobility, the migrations of court cooks, the marriage alliances of the imperial family, and the establishment of regional courts in Awadh, Hyderabad, Bengal, the Deccan, Kashmir, and the Punjab. The principal regional variations of the techniques of the Mughal kitchen include the Awadhi tradition of Lucknow, the Hyderabadi tradition of the Nizams, the Bengali tradition of the Nawabs of Murshidabad, the Kashmiri wazwan tradition, the Punjabi tradition of the later Mughal period and the Sikh kingdoms, the Bhopal tradition of the Nawabs of Bhopal, the Rajasthani tradition of the Rajput courts, the Mughlai tradition of Old Delhi, the Sindhi tradition of the Sind region, and the various other regional traditions of the imperial period.

Each of these regional traditions has its own characteristic techniques, its own characteristic dishes, and its own characteristic flavours, but all are recognisably part of the wider Mughal Mughlai synthesis. The Awadhi tradition of Lucknow is distinguished by the use of dum cooking, the careful balancing of spices, the emphasis on kormas and pulaos over fiery curries, the use of kewra and rose water, and the elegance of presentation. The Hyderabadi tradition of the Nizams is distinguished by its preference for rice-based dishes, the heavy use of dried coconut, tamarind, and chillies, and the distinctive biryani of the Deccani tradition. The Bengali tradition of the Nawabs of Murshidabad is distinguished by the use of fish, the use of mustard oil, the use of the panch phoron (the five-spice blend of the Bengali tradition), and the elaborate mithai tradition of the regional mithai tradition.

The Preservation of the Techniques in Modern South Asian Cuisine

The techniques of the Mughal kitchen remain central to the modern South Asian cuisine, and many of the techniques developed or refined in the imperial kitchen are still in use in the bawarchi khanas of the old cities of Delhi, Lucknow, Hyderabad, and the various other cities of the South Asian region. The dum pukht technique of the imperial kitchen, the tandoor cookery of the imperial kitchen, the use of whole and ground spices, the use of ghee, the use of dahi, the use of saffron, the use of rose water, and the various other techniques of the imperial kitchen are still in use in the modern South Asian kitchen, and the bawarchis and halwais of the old cities of the South Asian region still transmit techniques of great antiquity through the family and apprenticeship traditions of the kitchen.

The preservation of the techniques of the Mughal kitchen in the modern South Asian cuisine is also reflected in the cookbooks of the modern period. The principal cookbooks of the modern period, including Kaikeyee of the Lucknow tradition, Prashad of the Hyderabad tradition, Daawat of the Old Delhi tradition, and the various other cookbooks of the regional traditions, are major elements of the modern South Asian culinary literature, and they preserve many of the techniques of the imperial kitchen. The Karim’s of Delhi, the Moti Mahal of Delhi, the Tunday Kababi of Lucknow, the Bukhara of Delhi, the Jewel of Nizam of Hyderabad, the Paradise of Hyderabad, and the various other restaurants of the Mughlai tradition are major institutions of the modern South Asian restaurant tradition, and they continue to serve dishes that preserve many of the techniques of the imperial kitchen.

The cultural memory of the techniques of the Mughal kitchen has also been preserved in the wider cultural memory of the South Asian community. The dum pukht technique, the tandoor cookery, the biryani layering, the mithai ornamentation, the use of ghee, the use of dahi, the use of saffron, the use of rose water, and the various other techniques of the imperial kitchen are major elements of the cultural memory of the South Asian community, and they continue to be celebrated in the cultural memory and the cultural practice of the region.

Sources

K.T. Achaya, A Historical Dictionary of Indian Food (1998).

For the broader context of the imperial kitchen, see the Mughal cuisine page. The rice and meat traditions of the imperial kitchen, including the biryani tradition, are treated in Biryani: a Mughal legacy. The sweet tradition of the imperial kitchen, including the mithai tradition, is treated in Mughal sweets and desserts. The festival context in which the techniques of the imperial kitchen were deployed is treated on the Mughal festivals and entertainment page, in Mughal weddings, and in The celebration of Nauroz. The historical context of the techniques, including the Persian and Central Asian origins of the techniques, is treated in the Mughal culture overview and in Persian literature at the Mughal court. The economic context of the techniques, including the role of the imperial bawarchi khana in the imperial household, is treated in the Mughal administration overview and the Mughal court and nobility pages. The cultural status of the techniques in the modern South Asian cuisine is treated in the Mughal culture overview.