Mughal Music and Musicians

Music held a central place in the cultural life of the Mughal court, and the imperial mehfil (formal musical gathering), the naqqar khana (drum house), the mushaira (poetry gathering), and the broader musical life of the imperial household and the wider society were among the most important cultural institutions of the empire. The Mughal musical tradition synthesised the inheritance of the Persian and Central Asian musical systems of the Timurid and Safavid courts, the indigenous Indian classical tradition of the raga and the tala, the Sufi devotional music of the Chishti and other orders, and the folk and tribal music of the various regions of the Indian subcontinent. The result was a recognisably new musical tradition, the Hindustani classical tradition, that became one of the most distinguished of the musical traditions of the world. The prehistory of the tradition in the Persian and Central Asian musical systems, the role of Amir Khusrau in the development of the qawwali and the sitar, the synthesis of Persian, Central Asian, and Indian elements, the major instruments of the imperial mehfil, the major musicians of the court (Tansen, Baiju Bawra, Baz Bahadur, and others), the development of the gharana system, the patronage of music at the imperial court, the dismissal of musicians under Aurangzeb, and the legacy of the Mughal musical tradition in the modern South Asian classical tradition are treated in detail below.

The Pre-Mughal Tradition

The Mughal musical tradition did not arise in a vacuum. It was the heir to a long Persianate and Indic musical tradition that had been developing in the Indian subcontinent and the wider Islamic world for centuries. The Persian musical tradition of the pre-Mughal period included the radif of the Safavid and Timurid courts, the dastgah of the Iranian tradition, the maqam of the Arab tradition, the Sufi qawwali of the Chishti and other orders, and the marsiya and noha of the Shia tradition. The Indian musical tradition of the pre-Mughal period included the raga and the tala system of the Sanskrit tradition, the Sangita Ratnakara of Sharngadeva, the Dattilam of Dattila, the Brihaddeshi of Matanga, the Sangita Parijata of Ahobala, the Raga Vibhoda of Somanatha, and the various other theoretical and practical works of the Indian classical tradition.

The encounter between the Persian and the Indian musical traditions had already begun in the Delhi Sultanate period, and the Sultanate court of the 13th and 14th centuries was an important setting in which the two traditions were brought into contact. The Qawl and Ghazal traditions of the Sultanate court, the Marsiya and Noha traditions of the Shia tradition, the Sama tradition of the Sufi orders, the Tarana tradition of the Central Asian tradition, and the Raga tradition of the Indian classical tradition were all developed in the Sultanate period, and the synthesis of the Persian and Indian traditions was already well advanced by the time of the Mughal conquest.

The Role of Amir Khusrau

The figure of Amir Khusrau (1253–1325) holds a particularly important place in the development of the Indo-Persian musical tradition of the Indian subcontinent. Amir Khusrau, a Persian poet and Sufi of the Chishti order, is traditionally credited with the invention or introduction of a number of musical forms and instruments that became central to the Indo-Persian musical tradition: the qawwali (the Sufi devotional song), the tarana (a musical form using Persian and Arabic syllables), the sitar (the long-necked lute that became the principal instrument of the Hindustani classical tradition), the tabla (the pair of drums that became the principal percussion instrument of the Hindustani classical tradition), and the khayal (the principal vocal form of the Hindustani classical tradition).

The historical status of these attributions is debated. The qawwali tradition of the Chishti order is well established, and Amir Khusrau is generally credited with a major role in its development. The sitar and the tabla are also traditionally attributed to Amir Khusrau, although the historical record is less clear. The khayal is traditionally attributed to Amir Khusrau, but the term is not well documented in the pre-Mughal period, and the attribution may be a later tradition. Whatever the historical details, the figure of Amir Khusrau holds a central place in the cultural memory of the Indo-Persian musical tradition, and the tradition of attributing to him the principal musical forms and instruments of the Hindustani classical tradition is itself a major element of the cultural history of the period.

The Synthesis of Persian, Central Asian, and Indian Traditions

The Mughal court was the principal setting in which the synthesis of the Persian, Central Asian, and Indian musical traditions took place. The imperial mehfil of Akbar, Jahangir, and Shah Jahan was a major institution of the cultural life of the court, and the naqqar khana (drum house) was a major department of the imperial household. The principal musicians of the imperial court were drawn from the Persian, Central Asian, and Indian traditions, and the imperial mehfil of the period was a major setting in which the various traditions were brought into contact and synthesis.

The principal Persian and Central Asian elements of the synthesis included the radif and the dastgah of the Iranian tradition, the maqam of the Arab tradition, the tarana of the Central Asian tradition, the ghazal of the Persian lyric tradition, the qasida of the Persian panegyric tradition, and the various instrumental traditions of the Persian and Central Asian courts. The principal Indian elements of the synthesis included the raga and the tala system of the Sanskrit tradition, the dhrupad and khayal vocal forms, the sitar, sarod, sarangi, santoor, veena, and other instrumental traditions, and the various folk and classical traditions of the regional courts.

The encounter among these traditions in the Mughal mehfil produced a recognisably new musical tradition by the late sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. The Persian radif acquired the Indian raga system. The Indian raga acquired the Persian tarana. The Central Asian tarana acquired the Indian tala system. The Sufi qawwali of the Chishti order became a major musical form of the imperial court. The dhrupad of the Hindu tradition, the principal vocal form of the Sanskrit and North Indian classical tradition, became the principal vocal form of the imperial mehfil. By the reign of Akbar, the synthesis had produced a recognisable court musical tradition that was documented in detail in the Ain-i-Akbari and in the various musical treatises of the period.

The Major Instruments of the Imperial Mehfil

The principal instruments of the Mughal imperial mehfil included:

Sitar, the long-necked lute that became the principal instrument of the Hindustani classical tradition. The sitar is traditionally attributed to Amir Khusrau, although the instrument developed over the centuries. The Mughal sitar was typically a large instrument, with a gourd resonator, a long neck, and a substantial body. The sitar of the imperial mehfil was typically a fine instrument, made of the best woods and the best strings, and it was played by the most distinguished musicians of the court.
Sarod, the short-necked lute that became one of the principal instruments of the Hindustani classical tradition. The sarod is traditionally attributed to the Afghan tradition, and it was developed in the Indian subcontinent in the Mughal period. The sarod of the imperial mehfil was typically a fine instrument, with a metal body and a short neck, and it was played by the most distinguished musicians of the court.
Tabla, the pair of drums that became the principal percussion instrument of the Hindustani classical tradition. The tabla is traditionally attributed to Amir Khusrau, and it developed over the centuries into the principal percussion instrument of the period. The tabla of the imperial mehfil was typically a fine instrument, made of the best woods and the best skins, and it was played by the most distinguished percussionists of the court.
Sarangi, the short-necked bowed instrument that became one of the principal instruments of the Hindustani classical tradition. The sarangi of the imperial mehfil was typically a fine instrument, made of the best woods and the best strings, and it was played by the most distinguished musicians of the court.
Shehnai, the double-reed wind instrument that became one of the principal instruments of the Hindustani classical tradition and one of the principal instruments of the naqqar khana of the imperial household. The shehnai of the imperial mehfil was typically a fine instrument, made of the best woods and the best reeds, and it was played by the most distinguished musicians of the court.
Santoor, the hammered dulcimer that became one of the principal instruments of the Hindustani classical tradition. The santoor is traditionally attributed to the Kashmir tradition, and it was developed in the Indian subcontinent in the Mughal period. The santoor of the imperial mehfil was typically a fine instrument, with a substantial body and a substantial set of strings, and it was played by the most distinguished musicians of the court.
Naqqara (drums), Nafir (trumpets), Karna (kettle drums), and Surnai (shawms) of the imperial naqqar khana. The naqqar khana was a substantial establishment of the imperial household, and the naqqara, nafir, karna, and surnai of the imperial naqqar khana were major musical instruments of the imperial ceremonial. The naqqar khana regulated the daily life of the palace, the timings of prayer, the calls to the imperial banquet, the ceremonial processions, and the jharokha-i-darshan.

The Major Musicians of the Mughal Court

Tansen (c. 1500s–1586)

Tansen, originally from Gwalior, was the most celebrated musician of Akbar’s court, and he is generally considered one of the greatest musicians of the Hindustani classical tradition. Tansen was a Hindu convert to Islam, and he was associated with the court of Raja Man Singh Tomar of Gwalior before joining Akbar’s court in the 1560s. Tansen was awarded the title Kaviraja (king of poets, here used for music) and the mian tansen of the imperial mehfil, and he is traditionally credited with the composition of several ragas, including Miyan ki Sarang, Miyan ki Todi, and Darbari Kanada. The Darbari Kanada, the raga of the imperial court, is traditionally attributed to Tansen, and it remains one of the most distinguished of the ragas of the Hindustani classical tradition.

The Seni gharana, the Seni school of music, was founded by Tansen, and it is musical traditions of North India. The Seni gharana continued to be musical traditions of North India into the modern period, and the Darbari Kanada of Tansen remains one of the most distinguished ragas of the Hindustani classical tradition.

Baiju Bawra (c. 1500s)

Baiju Bawra, a contemporary and rival of Tansen, is musicians of the pre-Mughal and Mughal period. Baiju Bawra is traditionally said to have been a champion of the dhrupad tradition of the North Indian classical tradition, and he is said to have challenged Tansen to a musical duel at the court of Akbar. The historical details of the duel are legendary, but the figure of Baiju Bawra holds a central place in the cultural memory of the period, and the Bawra tradition of the dhrupad of the North Indian classical tradition is a major element of the wider musical inheritance.

Baz Bahadur (c. 1550s)

Baz Bahadur, the last independent Sultan of Malwa, is traditionally remembered as one of the most distinguished musicians of the period. Baz Bahadur was a renowned dhrupad singer and sitar player, and the dhrupad of the Malwa tradition is a major element of the wider dhrupad tradition. Baz Bahadur’s romantic relationship with the musician Rani Roopmati is love stories of the Mughal period, and it is a major element of the cultural memory of the period.

The Gharana System

The gharana system of musical lineages, features of the Hindustani classical tradition, developed during the Mughal period. The gharana (literally “household”) system is a system of musical lineages in which a particular style of singing or playing is transmitted from generation to generation through the family and the apprenticeship system, and each gharana has its own distinctive style, repertoire, and tradition. The principal gharanas of the Hindustani classical tradition that developed during the Mughal period include the Seni gharana (founded by Tansen), the Kachhwaha gharana (of the Kachhwaha Rajput tradition), the Rababi gharana (of the Sikh tradition), the Kalawant gharana (of the Lucknow tradition), the Agra gharana (of the Agra tradition), the Jaipur gharana (of the Jaipur tradition), the Gwalior gharana (of the Gwalior tradition), and a substantial body of other gharanas of the period.

The gharana system was a major development of the Mughal musical tradition, and it is features of the modern Hindustani classical tradition. The gharana system has been studied extensively by modern musicologists, and the gharanas of the period continue to be major institutions of the modern Hindustani classical tradition.

The Patronage of Music at the Mughal Court

The Mughal court maintained a substantial musical establishment, the naqqar khana of the imperial household, and the principal musicians of the court were highly paid and held important positions in the imperial household. The mir naqqar khana (master of the drum house) was an important office, and the naqqar khana was a substantial establishment with its own hierarchy of officers, its own buildings, and its own budget. The principal musicians of the imperial court were drawn from the Seni, Kachhwaha, Rababi, Kalawant, and other traditions, and the imperial mehfil of the period was a major institution of the cultural life of the court.

The Mughal emperor typically took a personal interest in the music of the imperial mehfil, and the Ain-i-Akbari of Abu’l Fazl contains a substantial body of observations on the music of the period, the principal musicians of the period, the principal ragas of the period, the principal talas of the period, and the personal tastes of Akbar. The Tuzuk-i-Jahangiri of Jahangir also contains substantial observations on the music of the period, the principal musicians of the period, the principal ragas of the period, and the personal tastes of Jahangir. The Padshahnama of Shah Jahan also contains substantial observations on the music of the period and the principal musicians of the period.

The principal products of the Mughal musical tradition include the dhrupad and khayal vocal forms, the tarana musical form, the qawwali Sufi devotional song, the marsiya and noha of the Shia tradition, the ghazal of the Persian lyric tradition, the principal ragas of the Hindustani classical tradition (including Miyan ki Sarang, Miyan ki Todi, Darbari Kanada, and many others), the principal talas of the Hindustani classical tradition, and the principal instruments of the Hindustani classical tradition (including the sitar, sarod, tabla, sarangi, shehnai, santoor, and many others).

The Dismissal of Musicians under Aurangzeb

The Mughal musical tradition underwent a substantial change under the reign of Aurangzeb (r. 1658–1707), as the emperor took a more conservative religious stance and reduced the imperial patronage of music. The Aurangzeb period saw the dismissal of many of the principal musicians of the imperial court, the reduction of the imperial mehfil, the reduction of the imperial naqqar khana, the reduction of the imperial patronage of the principal musical traditions, and the dispersal of the principal musicians of the imperial court to the regional courts of the empire. The dismissal of the musicians under Aurangzeb is sometimes presented as a decisive break with the earlier musical tradition, although the historical details are more complex: Aurangzeb maintained a substantial naqqar khana of his own, he maintained substantial musical establishments at his Deccan court, and the principal musical traditions of the empire continued to be patronised by the regional courts.

The dismissal of the musicians under Aurangzeb led to the dispersal of the imperial musical tradition to the regional courts of the empire, and the principal musicians of the period established the gharana system of the regional traditions: the Lucknow gharana (of the Nawabs of Awadh), the Hyderabad gharana (of the Nizams of Hyderabad), the Jaipur gharana (of the Kachhwaha Rajput court), the Atrauli gharana (of the Alwar Rajput court), the Agra gharana (of the Agra tradition), the Gwalior gharana (of the Gwalior tradition), the Patiala gharana (of the Patiala Sikh court), and a substantial body of other gharanas of the period.

The Legacy of Mughal Music in Modern South Asia

The Mughal musical tradition remains central to the modern Hindustani classical tradition of India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, and the wider South Asian diaspora. The dhrupad and khayal vocal forms of the Mughal tradition are the principal vocal forms of the modern Hindustani classical tradition. The sitar, sarod, tabla, sarangi, shehnai, santoor, and other instruments of the Mughal tradition are the principal instruments of the modern Hindustani classical tradition. The principal ragas and talas of the Mughal tradition (including Miyan ki Sarang, Miyan ki Todi, Darbari Kanada, and many others) are the principal ragas and talas of the modern Hindustani classical tradition. The gharana system of the Mughal period is the principal gharana system of the modern Hindustani classical tradition, and the principal gharanas of the modern Hindustani classical tradition are direct descendants of the gharanas of the Mughal period.

The cultural status of the Mughal musical tradition in the modern period is reflected in the substantial body of scholarship on the period, the substantial body of recordings of the period, the substantial body of concerts of the period, the substantial body of music festivals of the period, and the substantial body of cultural institutions of the period. The Seni gharana of Tansen, the Kachhwaha gharana of the Rajput tradition, the Lucknow gharana of the Nawabs of Awadh, the Hyderabad gharana of the Nizams of Hyderabad, the Agra gharana of the Agra tradition, the Gwalior gharana of the Gwalior tradition, the Patiala gharana of the Patiala Sikh court, and the other gharanas of the period continue to be major institutions of the modern Hindustani classical tradition, and the principal musicians of the period continue to be celebrated in the cultural memory of the modern Hindustani classical tradition.

Sources

Bonnie C. Wade, Khyal: Creativity within North India’s Classical Music Tradition (Cambridge University Press, 1984), for the gharana background.

For the broader context of Mughal cultural life, see the Mughal culture overview. The painting tradition of the imperial atelier, which often depicted the music of the imperial mehfil, is treated on the Mughal art and miniature painting page, and in Mughal painting under Akbar and Mughal painting under Jahangir. The court culture that patronised the imperial mehfil is treated in the entries on Akbar, who patronised Tansen and the principal musicians of the period, and on Jahangir, who was an enthusiastic patron of music and natural history. The festival context in which the music of the imperial mehfil was deployed is treated on the Mughal festivals and entertainment page. The development of the qawwali and the Sufi musical tradition is treated in the Hindu-Muslim relations page. The textile and costume traditions of the imperial mehfil are treated on the Mughal costumes and personal adornment page.