Mughal Painting under Jahangir

The painting tradition of the reign of Jahangir (r. 1605–1627) is generally considered the high point of the Mughal painting tradition, and it is one of the most accomplished and most distinguished of the early modern painting traditions of the world. The Tuzuk-i-Jahangiri, the emperor’s memoirs, contains many of his personal observations on painting and on the painters of the imperial atelier, and the period is distinguished by a substantial shift in the character of the imperial painting from the illustrated manuscript to the single-page painting, the muraqqa or album, and the individual portrait. The period saw the development of a more refined naturalism, a more individualised portraiture, a more naturalistic interest in the natural world, and a more developed use of European techniques of perspective, shading, and individualised portraiture. The principal painters of the Jahangir-period workshop — Abu’l Hasan, Ustad Mansur, Bichitr, Manohar, Daulat, Bishandas, Muhammad Nadir, and Muhammad Murad — are among the most accomplished artists of the early modern world, and the paintings of the period — the celebrated single-page paintings of the muraqqa tradition, the portraits of the emperor and the principal nobles, the natural history paintings of the imperial atelier, and the illustrations of the Tuzuk-i-Jahangiri — are among the masterpieces of the early modern painting tradition. The shift from manuscript to single-page painting, the naturalist interest of the emperor, the leading painters of the workshop, the development of the individual portrait, the European influence on the tradition, the patronage of the work, and the place of the Jahangir-period painting in world art history are treated in detail below.

The Shift from Manuscript to Single-Page Painting

The most distinctive feature of the Jahangir-period painting is the substantial shift in the character of the imperial painting from the illustrated manuscript to the single-page painting, the muraqqa or album, and the individual portrait. Under Akbar, the imperial atelier had produced a substantial body of illustrated manuscripts, including the Akbarnama, the Razmnama, the Iyar-i-Danish, the Timurnama, the Tutinama, the Babar-nama, the Jami’ al-Tawarikh, and a long series of other historical, literary, and religious works. Under Jahangir, the production of illustrated manuscripts continued, but the major new development was the production of single-page paintings, often of single subjects, intended to be bound in albums (muraqqa) or presented as gifts to the principal nobles of the empire.

The shift from manuscript to single-page painting was accompanied by a substantial change in the character of the painting. The single-page paintings of the Jahangir period were typically more carefully composed, more carefully drafted, more carefully coloured, more carefully finished, and more carefully integrated than the manuscript illustrations of the Akbar period. The single-page painting was also more often the work of a single master than the manuscript illustration, which was typically the work of several masters, and the Jahangir-period single-page paintings are therefore often more individual in character than the Akbar-period manuscript illustrations.

The single-page paintings of the Jahangir period were assembled in the muraqqa (album) tradition, and the principal muraqqa of the period include the Muraqqa-i-Gulshan (now in the Golestan Palace, Tehran), the Muraqqa-i-Shah Jahan (now in the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York), the Muraqqa-i-Windsor (now in the Royal Collection at Windsor Castle), the Muraqqa-i-Akbar (now in the Victoria and Albert Museum), the Muraqqa-i-Jahangir (now dispersed), and a number of other muraqqa of the period. The muraqqa tradition of the Jahangir period was a major development of the imperial painting tradition, and it represents a high point of the Persianate album tradition.

The Naturalist Interest of the Emperor

The Tuzuk-i-Jahangiri, the emperor’s memoirs, contains a substantial body of personal observations on painting and on the natural world, and the period is distinguished by a particular naturalist interest on the part of the emperor. Jahangir was an enthusiastic naturalist, and he took a personal interest in the natural history paintings of the imperial atelier, the cultivation of the imperial gardens, the menagerie of the imperial palace, the study of flora and fauna, and the various other naturalist activities of the imperial household. The naturalist interest of the emperor is reflected in the substantial body of natural history paintings produced by the Jahangir-period atelier, and the paintings of the period are among the most accomplished natural history paintings of the early modern world.

The Tuzuk-i-Jahangiri contains numerous observations on the natural world: on the sighting of a particular species of bird, on the arrival of a particular species of animal at the imperial menagerie, on the cultivation of a particular species of plant in the imperial gardens, on the painting of a particular species of flower by one of the imperial painters, on the study of the natural history of a particular region, and on the various other naturalist activities of the period. The Tuzuk also contains a substantial body of observations on the painters of the imperial atelier, the principal painters of the period, the major works of the period, and the personal tastes of the emperor.

The naturalist interest of the emperor is reflected in the principal natural history paintings of the Jahangir-period atelier, which include the famous Dodo painting of Ustad Mansur (now in the Natural History Museum, London), the Siberian Crane painting of Ustad Mansur (now in the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York), the Zebra painting of Ustad Mansur (now in the British Museum), the Turkey painting of Ustad Mansur (now in the V&A), the Indian Rhinoceros painting of Ustad Mansur (now in the British Museum), the Red-hooded Crane painting of Ustad Mansur (now in the V&A), and a substantial body of other natural history paintings of the period.

The Leading Artists of the Jahangir Period

The principal painters of the Jahangir-period workshop included:

Abu’l Hasan (c. 1588–c. 1630)

Abu’l Hasan, the most distinguished painter of the Jahangir period, was awarded the title Nadir uz-Zaman (“Wonder of the Age”) by Jahangir. Abu’l Hasan is known for his sensitive portrait studies, his single-page paintings of court subjects, and his masterpiece Jahangir Embracing Shah Abbas of Persia (now in the Freer Gallery, Washington). The painting depicts the Mughal emperor embracing the Safavid shah, an allegorical representation of the diplomatic rapprochement between the two empires, and it is works of the early modern painting tradition. Abu’l Hasan’s other paintings include the Jahangir Shooting a Lion, the Jahangir at the Jharokha-i-Darshan, the Jahangir at the Durbar, the Jahangir Weighing Himself against Gold (the tuladan), the Jahangir and the Golden Chain of Justice, the Jahangir Receiving Prince Khurram, and a substantial body of other paintings of the imperial court.

Ustad Mansur (active c. 1590s–1630s)

Ustad Mansur, the most distinguished natural history painter of the period, was awarded the title Nadir ul-‘Asr (“Wonder of the Age”) by Jahangir. Mansur’s paintings of the dodo, the Siberian crane, the zebra, the turkey, the red-hooded crane, the Indian rhinoceros, the various species of Indian flora and fauna, and a substantial body of other natural history paintings are among the most accomplished natural history paintings of the early modern world. Mansur’s paintings are characterised by their careful draftsmanship, their careful colouring, their careful attention to the specific features of the species, their careful treatment of the natural setting, and their careful integration of the various elements of the painting. Mansur is sometimes called “the Audubon of India,” and his paintings are among the most distinguished natural history paintings of the early modern world.

Bichitr (active c. 1620s–1660)

Bichitr, a Hindu painter from the Punjab, was the most distinguished master of the late Jahangir and Shah Jahan periods. Bichitr is known for his sensitive portrait studies, his paintings of court subjects, his paintings of the Padshahnama, his paintings of the Jahangir court, and his paintings of the formal court ceremonial. Bichitr’s Jahangir Receives Prince Khurram (now in the National Museum, New Delhi) is one of the most accomplished works of the late Jahangir-period style, and it represents the transition from the Jahangir style to the Shah Jahan formal court style.

Manohar (active c. 1580s–1620s)

Manohar, the son of Basawan, was a leading master of the late Akbar and Jahangir periods. Manohar’s paintings of the Akbarnama, the Iyar-i-Danish, and the Tuzuk-i-Jahangiri are among the most accomplished works of the period, and his single-page paintings of court subjects, of natural history subjects, of animal studies, and of religious subjects are major documents of the period. Manohar’s paintings are characterised by their careful draftsmanship, their careful colouring, their careful composition, and their careful integration of the various elements of the painting.

Daulat (active c. 1600s)

Daulat, a master of the muraqqa tradition, was one of the leading painters of the late Jahangir period. Daulat is known for his paintings of the muraqqa tradition, his paintings of the Tuzuk-i-Jahangiri, his paintings of the Akbar-nama, his paintings of the Jami’ al-Tawarikh, and his single-page paintings of court subjects, of natural history subjects, and of religious subjects. Daulat’s paintings are characterised by their careful draftsmanship, their careful colouring, and their careful treatment of the human figure.

Bishandas (active c. 1610s–1620s)

Bishandas, a painter of portraits and court subjects, was sent by Jahangir on the diplomatic mission to the Safavid court of Shah Abbas in 1613. Bishandas is known for his paintings of the Persian court, his paintings of the Mughal court, and his single-page paintings of court subjects, of natural history subjects, and of religious subjects. Bishandas’s paintings of the Persian court are among the most accomplished works of the diplomatic painting tradition of the period.

Muhammad Nadir and Muhammad Murad

Muhammad Nadir and Muhammad Murad, painters of the late Jahangir period, were masters of the formal court style of the period. They are known for their paintings of the Tuzuk-i-Jahangiri, their paintings of the Padshahnama, their single-page paintings of court subjects, and their contributions to the development of the formal court style of the period.

The Development of the Individual Portrait

The Jahangir period saw the substantial development of the individual portrait as a distinct genre of the imperial painting tradition. Under Akbar, the portrait had been a subsidiary element of the larger painting, typically depicted as part of a larger narrative composition, and individual portraits of the emperor, the principal nobles, and the holy men of the period were produced in substantial numbers. Under Jahangir, the individual portrait became a major genre in its own right, and the imperial atelier produced a substantial body of individual portraits of the emperor, the principal nobles, the holy men, the scholars, the Sufi masters, the Rajput rulers, the European visitors, and the various other subjects of the period.

The development of the individual portrait under Jahangir was accompanied by a substantial refinement of the techniques of individualised portraiture. The painters of the period developed a more naturalistic treatment of the human face, a more individualised treatment of the human figure, a more careful attention to the specific features of the sitter, a more careful treatment of the costume and the personal ornaments, and a more careful treatment of the background and the setting. The result was a portrait tradition that is among the most accomplished of the early modern portrait traditions, and the portraits of the Jahangir period are among the masterpieces of the early modern painting tradition.

The most famous individual portraits of the Jahangir period include the Portrait of Jahangir with the Golden Chain of Justice (attributed to Abu’l Hasan, now in the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston), the Portrait of Jahangir Holding a Wine Cup (attributed to Abu’l Hasan, now in the National Museum, New Delhi), the Portrait of Shah Abbas of Persia (attributed to Bishandas, now in the Metropolitan Museum of Art), the Portrait of Asaf Khan (attributed to Bichitr, now in the National Museum, New Delhi), the Portrait of Itimad-ud-Daulah (attributed to Abu’l Hasan, now in the V&A), and a substantial body of other individual portraits of the period.

The European Influence on the Jahangir-Period Style

The Jahangir period continued the European influence on the Mughal style that had begun under Akbar, and the European influence was in some respects even more visible in the Jahangir period than in the Akbar period. The Jesuit missions continued to visit the Mughal court in the early seventeenth century, and the European prints, engravings, and oil paintings continued to circulate through the Portuguese and English trading companies. The Mughal painters of the Jahangir period continued to absorb elements of European naturalism — the modelling of the figure in chiaroscuro, the use of linear perspective, the treatment of atmospheric distance, the inclusion of individual portrait features, the rendering of European subjects and costumes — into the indigenous Mughal style, and the resulting synthesis is features of the Jahangir-period workshop.

The European influence is most visible in the formal court portraits, in the formal court ceremonial paintings, in the natural history paintings, and in the use of perspective and shading in the architectural settings. The use of European techniques in the Jahangir period was, however, more selective and more integrated than in the Akbar period, and the European elements were typically integrated into the wider Persian-Indian synthesis of the Mughal style rather than being presented as distinctively European elements.

The Patronage of the Jahangir-Period Painting

The painting tradition of the Jahangir period was patronised by the emperor himself, by the principal nobles of the imperial court, and by the regional courts of the empire. The emperor took a personal interest in the production of the imperial paintings, and the Tuzuk-i-Jahangiri contains numerous observations on the paintings of the imperial atelier, the principal painters of the period, the major works of the period, and the personal tastes of the emperor. The principal nobles of the imperial court — Asaf Khan, Mir Jumla II, Sa’dullah Khan, and others — also maintained their own painters and their own karkhanas, and the muraqqa tradition of the imperial court was a major element of the cultural life of the period.

The principal products of the Jahangir-period workshop were the illustrated manuscripts of the period (including the Tuzuk-i-Jahangiri, the Iyar-i-Danish, the Jami’ al-Tawarikh, the Akbar-nama, the Babur-nama, and a long series of other historical, literary, and religious works); the muraqqa (albums) of single-page paintings, including the celebrated Muraqqa-i-Gulshan, the Muraqqa-i-Windsor, the Muraqqa-i-Shah Jahan, the Muraqqa-i-Akbar, and a number of other muraqqa of the period; the individual portraits of the emperor, the principal nobles, the holy men, the scholars, the Sufi masters, the Rajput rulers, the European visitors, and the various other subjects of the period; and the natural history paintings of the imperial atelier, of which the Mansur paintings of the dodo, the Siberian crane, the zebra, the turkey, the Indian rhinoceros, and the various other species of the Indian flora and fauna are the most famous.

The Place of the Jahangir-Period Painting in World Art History

The painting tradition of the Jahangir period holds a distinctive place in the wider history of world art. The Jahangir-period painting is generally considered the high point of the Mughal painting tradition, and it is one of the most accomplished of the early modern painting traditions of the world. The Jahangir-period painting is distinguished by its refinement, by its naturalism, by its individualised portraiture, by its naturalist interest, by its integration of Persian, Indian, and European elements, and by its historical importance as a major chapter in the history of the painting of the early modern world.

The Jahangir-period painting has been the subject of extensive scholarly study, and the paintings of the period are among the most thoroughly studied works of the early modern painting tradition. The principal modern studies of the Jahangir-period painting include the works of M. S. Randhawa, John Seyller, Gauvin Bailey, Oleg Grabar, Wheeler Thackston, Ebba Koch, Roger Crill, T. W. Arnold, P. Chandra, Ananda Coomaraswamy, Asok Kumar Das, Pratapaditya Pal, and a substantial body of other modern scholarship. The principal paintings of the period are now in the major museums and libraries of the world — the Freer Gallery, the Metropolitan Museum of Art, the British Museum, the V&A, the Royal Collection at Windsor Castle, the National Museum of India, the Chester Beatty Library, the Museum of Fine Arts in Boston, the Los Angeles County Museum of Art, and many other institutions — and they are among the most treasured possessions of the world’s great museum collections.

Sources

Milo Cleveland Beach, The Imperial Image (2012), ch. 4.

For the broader context of the painting tradition, see the Mughal art and miniature painting page. The painting tradition of the reign of Akbar, which preceded and shaped the Jahangir-period style, is treated in Mughal painting under Akbar. The official chronicle of the reign of Akbar, the Akbarnama, is treated in The Akbarnama. The official chronicle of the reign of Shah Jahan, the Padshahnama, which continued the painting tradition, is treated in The Padshahnama. The historical context of the reign of Jahangir, under which the painting tradition reached its peak, is treated in greater detail in the entry on Jahangir. The literary and linguistic context of the period, including the Persian literary tradition of the court, is treated in the Mughal literature and languages and Persian literature at the Mughal court pages. The naturalist interest of the period, which was a major element of the Jahangir-period painting, is treated in the Mughal culture overview.